Visual-vestibular cue integration for heading perception: applications of optimal cue integration theory

“However, in many cases the prior is assumed to be approximately uniform (e.g., Ernst & Banks, 2002; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004).”

“…estimate is simply the sum of the individual cue reliabilities: 1 r2AB ¼ 1 r2A þ 1 r2B ; or r2AB ¼ r2Ar 2 B r2A þ r2B ð4Þ A distinct but related approach uses Bayes’ rule to define optimal cue integration (for reviews see Yuille & Bülthoff, 1996; Mamassian et al., 2002; Knill & Pouget, 2004).”

“…for behavioral performance by incorporating top-down expectations or biases about the stimuli, whether they are learned during the course of a task (Körding & Wolpert, 2004) or otherwise established during development or through life experience (e.g., Weiss et al., 2002; Stocker & Simoncelli,…”

“To quantify neuronal sensitivity in a manner similar to behavior, we used signal detection theory (receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis; Green & Swets, 1966; Bradley et al., 1987; Britten et al., 1992) to generate neurometric functions for each cell in the three stimulus conditions.”

“However, in many cases the prior is assumed to be approximately uniform (e.g., Ernst & Banks, 2002; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004).”

“Vection refers to an illusory percept of self-motion induced by visual motion (Mach, 1875; Brandt et al., 1972; Berthoz et al., 1975; Dichgans & Brandt, 1978; Howard, 1982).”

“…behavioral performance by incorporating top-down expectations or biases about the stimuli, whether they are learned during the course of a task (Körding & Wolpert, 2004) or otherwise established during development or through life experience (e.g., Weiss et al., 2002; Stocker & Simoncelli, 2006).”

“One of the simplest of such models (Cochran, 1937; Clark & Yuille, 1990; Landy et al., 1995) posits that the lowest-variance unbiased estimate (denoted S), given a set of n sensory cues, is one that takes a weighted linear sum of each single-cue estimate (Si): Ŝ ¼ Xn i¼1 wiŜi ð1Þ The weights wi…”

“Somatosensory and proprioceptive cues, in addition to efference copy signals, are especially critical for the guidance of active movements (Mittelstaedt & Mittelstaedt, 2001; Sun et al., 2004; Angelaki & Cullen, 2008) which comprise most natural self-motion.”

“MSTd and VIP neurons have large receptive fields and directional selectivity for optic flow patterns that simulate self-motion (Tanaka et al., 1986; Tanaka & Saito, 1989; Duffy & Wurtz, 1991, 1995; Schaafsma & Duysens, 1996; Bremmer et al., 2002).”

“Second, the task is well suited for using tools developed in classic studies of visual motion discrimination (Britten et al., 1992; Shadlen et al., 1996), including a principled method for manipulating cue reliability (motion coherence), and the use of signal-detection theory to compare neuronal…”

“…behavioral performance by incorporating top-down expectations or biases about the stimuli, whether they are learned during the course of a task (Körding & Wolpert, 2004) or otherwise established during development or through life experience (e.g., Weiss et al., 2002; Stocker & Simoncelli, 2006).”

“Vestibular research has lagged behind other sensory systems, particularly vision and somatosensation (Parker & Newsome, 1998; Luna et al., 2005), in terms of understanding the information contained in neuronal responses, the uncertainty associated with that information, and how signals might be…”

“Since the pioneering work of James Gibson (1950, 1954, 1958) it has been widely recognized that visual cues provide a rich source of information about our movements through the environment.”

“…has been successfully applied in a number of theoretical and psychophysical studies of cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004;…”

“…Ltd European Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1721–1729 MSTd and VIP neurons have large receptive fields and directional selectivity for optic flow patterns that simulate self-motion (Tanaka et al., 1986; Tanaka & Saito, 1989; Duffy & Wurtz, 1991, 1995; Schaafsma & Duysens, 1996; Bremmer et al., 2002).”

“…proprioceptive and motor-related signals as early as one or two synapses from the periphery, in the brainstem vestibular nuclei (Henn et al., 1974; Robinson, 1977; Waespe & Henn, 1977; Daunton & Thomsen, 1979) and vestibulocerebellum (Waespe et al., 1981; Waespe & Henn, 1981; Markert et al., 1988).”

“…studies of cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al.,…”

“Heading sensitivity of MSTd neurons (Gu et al., 2008).”

“…of cue reliability (uncertainty) exists in the responses of sensory neurons, an important follow-up question is whether and how this representation is decoded into a more explicit form (e.g., Jazayeri & Movshon, 2006; Jazayeri, 2008) that can be used to guide decisions and predict their outcomes.”

“One of the simplest of such models (Cochran, 1937; Clark & Yuille, 1990; Landy et al., 1995) posits that the lowest-variance unbiased estimate (denoted S), given a set of n sensory cues, is one that takes a weighted linear sum of each single-cue estimate (Si): Ŝ ¼ Xn i¼1 wiŜi ð1Þ The weights wi…”

“…inability to distinguish translational motion from changes in orientation relative to gravity (the tilt–translation ambiguity; Angelaki et al., 1999; Merfeld et al., 1999; Angelaki et al., 2004), but in fact this ambiguity is resolved in the brain by incorporating angular velocity signals from…”

“information with inertial signals that specify the motion of the head in space, such as from the vestibular otolith organs (Guedry, 1974; Fernandez & Goldberg, 1976a, 1976b; Benson et al., 1986).”

“Vection refers to an illusory percept of self-motion induced by visual motion (Mach, 1875; Brandt et al., 1972; Berthoz et al., 1975; Dichgans & Brandt, 1978; Howard, 1982).”

“One of the simplest of such models (Cochran, 1937; Clark & Yuille, 1990; Landy et al., 1995) posits that the lowest-variance unbiased estimate (denoted S), given a set of n sensory cues, is one that takes a weighted linear sum of each single-cue estimate (Si): Ŝ ¼ Xn i¼1 wiŜi ð1Þ The weights wi…”

“Nevertheless, the most critical observation is that all subjects show clear changes in cue weights as a function of cue reliability, indicating that both monkeys and humans dynamically re-weight visual and vestibular cues on a trial-by-trial basis during self-motion perception (Fetsch et al., 2009).”

“A large body of work has been devoted to understanding the mechanisms by which the brain might compensate for these disruptions of the optic flow field and recover the true heading (for reviews see Lappe et al., 1999; Warren, 2003; Britten, 2008).”

“However, in many cases the prior is assumed to be approximately uniform (e.g., Ernst & Banks, 2002; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004).”

“…cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al., 2007; Burr et al.,…”

“Similarly, areas traditionally recognized as ‘vestibular cortex’ (e.g., area 2v and parieto-insular vestibular cortex; Schwarz & Fredrickson, 1971; Grüsser et al., 1990; Fukushima, 1997) are largely unresponsive to the types of optic flow stimuli used in the behavioral experiments described above…”

“…translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden & Hildreth, 1996; Warren & Rushton, 2009).”

“…with visual, proprioceptive and motor-related signals as early as one or two synapses from the periphery, in the brainstem vestibular nuclei (Henn et al., 1974; Robinson, 1977; Waespe & Henn, 1977; Daunton & Thomsen, 1979) and vestibulocerebellum (Waespe et al., 1981; Waespe & Henn, 1981;…”

“…Ltd European Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1721–1729 MSTd and VIP neurons have large receptive fields and directional selectivity for optic flow patterns that simulate self-motion (Tanaka et al., 1986; Tanaka & Saito, 1989; Duffy & Wurtz, 1991, 1995; Schaafsma & Duysens, 1996; Bremmer et al., 2002).”

“…by the work of Ma et al. (2006, 2008) is that cue reliability, perhaps in the form of a probability distribution over stimuli, is encoded implicitly by the activity of sensory neuronal populations (Foldiak, 1993; Sanger, 1996; Deneve et al., 2001; Knill & Pouget, 2004; Ma et al., 2006, 2008).”

“…Ltd European Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1721–1729 MSTd and VIP neurons have large receptive fields and directional selectivity for optic flow patterns that simulate self-motion (Tanaka et al., 1986; Tanaka & Saito, 1989; Duffy & Wurtz, 1991, 1995; Schaafsma & Duysens, 1996; Bremmer et al., 2002).”

“However, the real world is not so simple: translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden &…”

“studies of cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al., 2007; Burr et al., 2009; Ma et al…”

“heading perception might seem to be limited by their inability to distinguish translational motion from changes in orientation relative to gravity (the tilt–translation ambiguity; Angelaki et al., 1999; Merfeld et al., 1999; Angelaki et al., 2004), but in fact this ambiguity is resolved in the brain by incorporating a…”

“Furthermore, the temporal dynamics of vestibular responses in MSTd are generally consistent with the encoding of stimulus velocity (Gu et al., 2006; Liu & Angelaki, 2009), similar to the dynamics of visual motion responses.”

“Note that previous labyrinthectomy experiments (Gu et al., 2007) demonstrated severe and long-lasting performance deficits in the ‘vestibular’ condition, suggesting that the cues used by the animals in this condition were primarily of vestibular origin (rather than somatosensory or proprioceptive).”

“…to be limited by their inability to distinguish translational motion from changes in orientation relative to gravity (the tilt–translation ambiguity; Angelaki et al., 1999; Merfeld et al., 1999; Angelaki et al., 2004), but in fact this ambiguity is resolved in the brain by incorporating angular…”

“Of particular relevance here, at least 50-60% of MSTd neurons are also selective for physical translation in darkness (Duffy, 1998; Bremmer et al., 1999; Gu et al., 2006).”

“However, other limitations of the vestibular system, such as its failure to encode sustained constantvelocity motion (Fernandez & Goldberg, 1976a; Büttner & Waespe, 1981; Si et al., 1997), suggest that the nervous system cannot rely solely on vestibular signals for heading perception, just as it…”

“tions of the optic flow field and recover the true heading (for reviews see Lappe et al., 1999; Warren, 2003; Britten, 2008).”

“…et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al., 2007; Burr et al., 2009; Ma et al., 2009), each grounded in mathematical principles borrowed from ideal observer analysis, signal detection theory and ⁄…”

“Vestibular research has lagged behind other sensory systems, particularly vision and somatosensation (Parker & Newsome, 1998; Luna et al., 2005), in terms of understanding the information contained in neuronal responses, the uncertainty associated with that information, and how signals might be…”

“studies of cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al., 2007; Burr et al., 2009; Ma et al…”

“This type of experimental design, sometimes known as a perturbation analysis, has been used previously in several human psychophysical studies of cue integration in other sensory modalities (e.g., Young et al., 1993; Landy et al., 1995; Ernst & Banks, 2002; Alais & Burr, 2004).”

“…Ltd European Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1721–1729 MSTd and VIP neurons have large receptive fields and directional selectivity for optic flow patterns that simulate self-motion (Tanaka et al., 1986; Tanaka & Saito, 1989; Duffy & Wurtz, 1991, 1995; Schaafsma & Duysens, 1996; Bremmer et al., 2002).”

“In the model of Zacharias & Young (1981), for example, it was proposed that visual and vestibular cues combine in a weighted fashion to estimate self-rotation velocity.”

“However, the real world is not so simple: translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden &…”

“Somatosensory and proprioceptive cues, in addition to efference copy signals, are especially critical for the guidance of active movements (Mittelstaedt & Mittelstaedt, 2001; Sun et al., 2004; Angelaki & Cullen, 2008) which comprise most natural self-motion.”

“show some degree of compensation for distortions of the flow field due to real or simulated eye movements (Bradley et al., 1996; Page & Duffy, 1999; Zhang et al., 2004; Bremmer et al., 2009), and they have”

“priors favoring zero linear acceleration and angular velocity (MacNeilage et al., 2007; see also Laurens & Droulez, 2007).”

“…by the work of Ma et al. (2006, 2008) is that cue reliability, perhaps in the form of a probability distribution over stimuli, is encoded implicitly by the activity of sensory neuronal populations (Foldiak, 1993; Sanger, 1996; Deneve et al., 2001; Knill & Pouget, 2004; Ma et al., 2006, 2008).”

“(Harris et al., 2000) used a match-to-sample task, asking subjects to estimate their distance traveled.”

“However, it remains unclear how these changes in weights (Morgan et al., 2008) might be related to our preliminary findings of a single-cell correlate of behavioral cue reweighting (measured with ROC-based neurometric functions, as discussed above).”

“Unlike otolith afferents, but similar to recently reported neurons in the cerebellar nodulus and uvula (Yakusheva et al., 2007), MSTd cells respond selectively to translation and not tilt relative to gravity (Liu & Angelaki, 2009).”

“To quantify neuronal sensitivity in a manner similar to behavior, we used signal detection theory (receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis; Green & Swets, 1966; Bradley et al., 1987; Britten et al., 1992) to generate neurometric functions for each cell in the three stimulus conditions.”

“studies of cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al., 2007; Burr et al., 2009; Ma et al…”

“However, other limitations of the vestibular system, such as its failure to encode sustained constantvelocity motion (Fernandez & Goldberg, 1976a; Büttner & Waespe, 1981; Si et al., 1997), suggest that the nervous system cannot rely solely on vestibular signals for heading perception, just as it…”

“…theoretical framework, there remains substantial controversy in the literature as to which stimulus parameters are necessary and ⁄ or sufficient to produce vection (e.g., Zacharias & Young, 1981; Probst et al., 1985; Howard & Heckmann, 1989; Telford & Frost, 1993; Tarita-Nistor et al., 2006).”

“…translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden & Hildreth, 1996; Warren & Rushton, 2009).”

“…& Fredrickson, 1971; Grüsser et al., 1990; Fukushima, 1997) are largely unresponsive to the types of optic flow stimuli used in the behavioral experiments described above (Chen et al., 2010), and thus seem unlikely to play a substantial role in visual–vestibular integration for heading perception.”

“…translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden & Hildreth, 1996; Warren & Rushton, 2009).”

“bilateral labyrinthectomy (Gu et al., 2007; Takahashi et al., 2007).”

“translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden & Hildreth, 1996;”

“…proprioceptive and motor-related signals as early as one or two synapses from the periphery, in the brainstem vestibular nuclei (Henn et al., 1974; Robinson, 1977; Waespe & Henn, 1977; Daunton & Thomsen, 1979) and vestibulocerebellum (Waespe et al., 1981; Waespe & Henn, 1981; Markert et al.,…”

“…world is not so simple: translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden & Hildreth, 1996;…”

“…Ltd European Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1721–1729 MSTd and VIP neurons have large receptive fields and directional selectivity for optic flow patterns that simulate self-motion (Tanaka et al., 1986; Tanaka & Saito, 1989; Duffy & Wurtz, 1991, 1995; Schaafsma & Duysens, 1996; Bremmer et al., 2002).”

“…proprioceptive and motor-related signals as early as one or two synapses from the periphery, in the brainstem vestibular nuclei (Henn et al., 1974; Robinson, 1977; Waespe & Henn, 1977; Daunton & Thomsen, 1979) and vestibulocerebellum (Waespe et al., 1981; Waespe & Henn, 1981; Markert et al., 1988).”

“…recognized as ‘vestibular cortex’ (e.g., area 2v and parieto-insular vestibular cortex; Schwarz & Fredrickson, 1971; Grüsser et al., 1990; Fukushima, 1997) are largely unresponsive to the types of optic flow stimuli used in the behavioral experiments described above (Chen et al.,…”

“…applied in a number of theoretical and psychophysical studies of cue integration (e.g., Landy et al., 1995; Jacobs, 1999; van Beers et al., 1999; Landy & Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al.,…”

“at least 50-60% of MSTd neurons are also selective for physical translation in darkness (Duffy, 1998; Bremmer et al., 1999; Gu et al., 2006).”

“show some degree of compensation for distortions of the flow field due to real or simulated eye movements (Bradley et al., 1996; Page & Duffy, 1999; Zhang et al., 2004; Bremmer et al., 2009), and they have”

“…translating observers regularly undergo movements of their eyes and head (Royden et al., 1992, 1994; Banks et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 1998), and may also experience motion of other objects in the scene (Gibson, 1954; Warren & Saunders, 1995; Royden & Hildreth, 1996; Warren & Rushton, 2009).”

“Results showed that physical motion (e.g., vestibular) cues dominated the estimation of self-motion, contrary to the findings of Ohmi (1996).”

“These and other modern computational methods for modeling spatial orientation are discussed further in a comprehensive review by MacNeilage et al. (2008).”

“A recent series of experiments employing the ‘subjective visual vertical’ task (De Vrijer et al., 2008, 2009; Vingerhoets et al., 2009) extended these findings and supported the existence of an upright prior.”

“The overarching hypothesis exemplified by the work of Ma et al. (2006, 2008) is that cue reliability, perhaps in the form of a probability distribution over stimuli, is encoded implicitly by the activity of sensory neuronal populations (Foldiak, 1993; Sanger, 1996; Deneve et al., 2001; Knill &…”

“(De Vrijer et al., 2008, 2009; Vingerhoets et al., 2009) extended these findings and supported the existence of an upright prior.”

“…& Kojima, 2001; Ernst & Banks, 2002; van Beers et al., 2002; Knill & Saunders, 2003; Oruc et al., 2003; Alais & Burr, 2004; Hillis et al., 2004; Jürgens & Becker, 2006; MacNeilage et al., 2007; Burr et al., 2009; Ma et al., 2009), each grounded in mathematical principles borrowed from ideal…”

“In addition, they show some degree of compensation for distortions of the flow field due to real or simulated eye movements (Bradley et al., 1996; Page & Duffy, 1999; Zhang et al., 2004; Bremmer et al., 2009), and they have been causally linked to heading perception from optic flow in…”

“…the neural underpinnings of not only heading perception but also classical phenomena such as vection, the somatogravic and oculogravic illusions (Clark & Graybiel, 1963; Wolfe & Cramer, 1970; Previc et al., 1992), and biases in subjective verticality (Howard, 1982; De Vrijer et al., 2009).”

“…by the work of Ma et al. (2006, 2008) is that cue reliability, perhaps in the form of a probability distribution over stimuli, is encoded implicitly by the activity of sensory neuronal populations (Foldiak, 1993; Sanger, 1996; Deneve et al., 2001; Knill & Pouget, 2004; Ma et al., 2006, 2008).”

“…theoretical framework, there remains substantial controversy in the literature as to which stimulus parameters are necessary and ⁄ or sufficient to produce vection (e.g., Zacharias & Young, 1981; Probst et al., 1985; Howard & Heckmann, 1989; Telford & Frost, 1993; Tarita-Nistor et al., 2006).”

“Results showed that physical motion (e.g., vestibular) cues dominated the estimation of self-motion, contrary to the findings of Ohmi (1996).”

“Somatosensory and proprioceptive cues, in addition to efference copy signals, are especially critical for the guidance of active movements (Mittelstaedt & Mittelstaedt, 2001; Sun et al., 2004; Angelaki & Cullen, 2008) which comprise most natural self-motion.”

“Although the notion of frequencybased weighting has been disputed (Probst et al., 1985), future studies could attempt to reconcile these findings by explicitly acknowledging the probabilistic nature of the task and by seeking to measure and manipulate quantities such as cue reliability or the prior…”

“Journal Compilation ª Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and Blackwell Publishing Ltd the semicircular canals (reviewed by Angelaki & Cullen, 2008; Angelaki & Yakusheva, 2009).”

“However, the weights were determined not by cue reliability per se but by factors such as the frequency content of the stimuli and the magnitude of the conflict between the two cues (Zacharias & Young, 1981; see also Wright et al., 2005).”

“…of the vestibular system, such as its failure to encode sustained constantvelocity motion (Fernandez & Goldberg, 1976a; Büttner & Waespe, 1981; Si et al., 1997), suggest that the nervous system cannot rely solely on vestibular signals for heading perception, just as it cannot rely solely on…”

“Similarly, areas traditionally recognized as ‘vestibular cortex’ (e.g., area 2v and parieto-insular vestibular cortex; Schwarz & Fredrickson, 1971; Grüsser et al., 1990; Fukushima, 1997) are largely unresponsive to the types of optic flow stimuli used in the behavioral experiments described above…”

“Furthermore, the temporal dynamics of vestibular responses in MSTd are generally consistent with the encoding of stimulus velocity (Gu et al., 2006; Liu & Angelaki, 2009), similar to the dynamics of visual motion responses.”

“…proprioceptive and motor-related signals as early as one or two synapses from the periphery, in the brainstem vestibular nuclei (Henn et al., 1974; Robinson, 1977; Waespe & Henn, 1977; Daunton & Thomsen, 1979) and vestibulocerebellum (Waespe et al., 1981; Waespe & Henn, 1981; Markert et al., 1988).”

“This lack of visual–vestibular convergence was also observed in vestibular-responsive areas of the thalamus (Meng & Angelaki, 2010).”

“…theoretical framework, there remains substantial controversy in the literature as to which stimulus parameters are necessary and ⁄ or sufficient to produce vection (e.g., Zacharias & Young, 1981; Probst et al., 1985; Howard & Heckmann, 1989; Telford & Frost, 1993; Tarita-Nistor et al., 2006).”

“In fact, a recent study (Bryan & Angelaki, 2009) showed relatively weak convergence of visual and vestibular inputs in the vestibular and fastigial nuclei when animals were required to fixate a head-fixed target (suppressing OKN).”

“neurons, an important follow-up question is whether and how this representation is decoded into a more explicit form (e.g., Jazayeri & Movshon, 2006; Jazayeri, 2008) that can be used to guide decisions”

“, 1974; Robinson, 1977; Waespe & Henn, 1977; Daunton & Thomsen, 1979) and vestibulocerebellum (Waespe et al., 1981; Waespe & Henn, 1981; Markert et al., 1988).”

“The behavioral and perceptual benefits of multisensory integration have been shown to be quite impressive and to confer a highly degree of adaptive benefit (Calvert et al., 2004; Fetsch et al., 2010; Murray and Wallace, 2012; Stein and Meredith, 1993; Stevenson et al., 2014a).”

“, vision (Fetsch et al., 2010), audition, somatosensation (Lopez et al.”

“, the visual-inertial SFM problem (from now on the Vi-SfM problem), has particular interest and has been investigated by many disciplines, both in the framework of computer science Bryson and Sukkarieh (2008), Jones and Soatto (2011), Kelly and Sukhatme (2011), Martinelli (2012), Strelow and Singh (2004) and in the fr…”