The struggle for iron - a metal at the host-pathogen interface: Iron at the host-pathogen interface
Open accessAbstract
Iron holds a central position at the host-pathogen interface because mammalian and microbial cells have an essential demand for the metal, which is required for many metabolic processes. In addition, cross-regulatory interactions between iron homeostasis and immune function are evident. While iron affects the secretion of cytokines and the activity of transcription factors orchestrating immune responses, immune cell-derived mediators and acute-phase proteins control both systemic and cellular iron homeostasis. Additionally, immune-mediated strategies aim at restricting the supply of the essential nutrient iron to pathogens, which represents an effective strategy of host defence. On the other hand, microbes have evoked multiple strategies to utilize iron because a sufficient supply of this metal is linked to pathogen proliferation, virulence and persistence. The control over iron homeostasis is a central battlefield in host-pathogen interplay influencing the course of an infectious disease in favour of either the mammalian host or the pathogenic invader. This review summarizes our current knowledge on the combat of host cells and pathogens for the essential nutrient iron focusing on the immune-regulatory roles of iron on cell-mediated immunity necessary to control intracellular microbes, the host's mechanisms of iron restriction and on the counter-acting iron-acquisition strategies employed by intracellular microbes.
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Control over iron homeostasis is decisive in host-pathogen interaction.
“The control over iron homeostasis is decisive in host–pathogen interaction (Schaible and Kaufmann, 2004; Nairz et al., 2010; Cassat and Skaar, 2013).”
From Iron at the interface of immunity and infection (2014) · cites this paper as Nairz et al., 2010
Mechanisms for the acquisition of iron from hemoproteins such as HB and for the uptake of heme iron or ionic iron determine the virulence of human pathogens.
“Therefore, mechanisms for the acquisition of iron from hemoproteins such as HB and for the uptake of heme iron or ionic iron determine the virulence of human pathogens (Nairz et al., 2010;Skaar and Raffatellu, 2015).”
From Iron in infection and immunity (2020) · cites this paper as Nairz et al., 2010
The hypoferremic response to infection is also mediated by hepcidin-independent mechanisms, with cytokines such as interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, IL-1, and IL-6 modulating iron metabolism.
“The hypoferremic response to infection is also mediated by hepcidin-independent mechanisms. Cytokines such as interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, IL-1, and IL-6 modulate iron metabolism to further strengthen iron-withholding defenses (Figure 2B – C) (Nairz et al., 2010; Weiss, 2005).”
From Iron in infection and immunity (2013) · cites this paper as Nairz et al., 2010
Alterations of iron traffic are thought to result from a defense strategy of the body to limit the availability of iron for invading pathogens, leading to retention of iron in macrophages and impaired iron absorption from the diet.
“These alterations of iron traffic are thought to result from defense strategy of the body to limit the availability of iron for invading pathogens (167–169), which lead to retention of iron in MΦs and an impaired iron absorption from the diet (170).”
From Macrophage defense mechanisms against intracellular bacteria (2015) · cites this paper as [167]
Iron metabolism is significantly changed during the course of an infection.
“Based on the decisive role of iron for both host immune system and microbe function, it is obvious that iron metabolism is significantly changed during the course of an infection (32, 167, 168).”
From Macrophage defense mechanisms against intracellular bacteria (2015) · cites this paper as [167]
Negative effects of iron on NOS2 transcription can be referred to reduced binding affinity of transcription factors NF-IL6 and HIF-1 to the NOS2 promoter.
“The negative effects of iron on NOS2 transcription, which can be referred to a reduced binding affinity of the transcription factors NF-IL6 (C/EBP-β) and hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) to the NOS2 promoter (167, 189, 191), is part of a regulatory feedback loop, by which NO modulates the IRE-binding function of IRPs, thereby affecting ferritin translation and intracellular iron availability and”
From Macrophage defense mechanisms against intracellular bacteria (2015) · cites this paper as [167]
Nramp1-mediated alterations of iron homeostasis stimulate anti-microbial immune effector function in murine macrophages, reflected by increased NO or TNF-α and significantly reduced IL-10.
“In addition, Nramp1-mediated alterations of iron homeostasis stimulate anti-microbial immune effector function in murine macrophages as reflected by increased formation of NO or TNF-α whereas the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 is significantly reduced (167, 190).”
From Macrophage defense mechanisms against intracellular bacteria (2015) · cites this paper as [167]
Secreted hemophores can remove heme from Hb or hemopexin and deliver heme to bacterial cells through binding with hemophore receptors.
“Analogously, secreted hemophores can remove heme from Hb or hemopexin and deliver heme to bacterial cells through binding with hemophore receptors.”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
Pathogens are capable of exploiting diverse Fe sources through the elaboration of a variety of Fe acquisition systems.
“Pathogens are capable of exploiting these diverse Fe sources through the elaboration of a variety of Fe acquisition systems.”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
During infection, pathogens are capable of altering the battlefield to increase the abundance of potential Fe sources.
“During infection, pathogens are capable of altering the battlefield to increase the abundance of potential Fe sources.”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
Siderophore-mediated Fe acquisition is inhibited by the innate immune protein siderocalin, which binds siderophores and prevents receptor recognition.
“Siderophore mediated Fe acquisition is inhibited by the innate immune protein siderocalin, which binds siderophores and prevents receptor recognition.”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
Extracellular pathogens can acquire Fe through receptor-mediated recognition of Tf, Lf, hemopexin, hemoglobin, or hemoglobin-haptoglobin complexes.
“In the case of extracellular pathogens, they can acquire Fe through receptor-mediated recognition of Tf, Lf, hemopexin, hemoglobin, or hemoglobin-haptoglobin complexes [19, 27].”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
The resulting inflammatory response includes the release of Lf from secondary granules contained with polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs).
“The resulting inflammatory response includes the release of Lf from secondary granules contained with polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) [10, 21, 27].”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
This host defense is circumvented through the production of stealth siderophores that are modified to prevent siderocalin binding.
“This host defense is circumvented through the production of stealth siderophores that are modified in such a way as to prevent siderocalin binding [21, 27].”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
Bacterial cytotoxins damage host cells, leading to the release of Ft, while hemolytic toxins from bacteria can lyse erythrocytes, liberating Hb.
“For example, bacterial cytotoxins damage host cells, leading to the release of Ft, while hemolytic toxins from bacteria can lyse erythrocytes, liberating Hb.”
From Strategies of intracellular pathogens for obtaining iron from the environment (2015) · cites this paper as [27]
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- Authors
- Nairz, M., Schroll, A., Sonnweber, T., & Weiss, G.
- Affiliations
- Innsbruck Medical University (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Weiss, Günter
- Venue
- Cellular Microbiology
- Publisher
- Hindawi Limited
- Published
- 2010-10-21
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1691-1702
- ISSN
- 1462-5814 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1584411124
- Cited by
- 398
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 4.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cellular Microbiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Hematology › Iron Metabolism and Disorders
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Iron and Steelmaking Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Ferroptosis and cancer prognosis
- Keywords
- iron homeostasis, host-pathogen interaction, iron limitation, iron acquisition, intracellular pathogens, cell-mediated immunity, cytokine production, acute phase proteins, microbial virulence, host defense
- MeSH terms
- Bacteria, Communicable Diseases, Fungi, Iron, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Eukaryota
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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