The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention

People have a basic need to maintain the integrity of the self, a global sense of personal adequacy.

“People have a basic need to maintain the integrity of the self, a global sense of personal adequacy.”

• Also stated in: § Self-Affirmation Theory · plain

  “The postulate that people are motivated to maintain self-integrity rests at the center of selfaffirmation theory (Steele 1988; see also Sherman & Cohen 2006).”

• cites Steele 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman & Cohen 2006 sourceSupported

Threats to this image evoke psychological threat.

“Threats to this image evoke psychological threat (see Steele 1988, Sherman & Cohen 2006).”

• cites Steele 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman & Cohen 2006 sourceSupported

The postulate that people are motivated to maintain self-integrity rests at the center of self-affirmation theory.

“The postulate that people are motivated to maintain self-integrity rests at the center of selfaffirmation theory (Steele 1988; see also Sherman & Cohen 2006).”

• cites Steele 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman & Cohen 2006 sourceSupported

Self-affirmations also reduce defensive responses, adaptations to protect the self from threat.

“Reducing defensiveness.Self-affirmations also reduce defensive responses, adaptations to protect the self from threat (for a review, see Sherman & Cohen 2006).”

• cites Sherman & Cohen 2006 sourceSupported

Less encumbered by psychological threat, self-affirmed people can better marshal their cognitive resources to meet the demands of the task at hand.

“Less encumbered by psychological threat, self-affirmed people can better marshal their cognitive resources to meet the demands of the task at hand, for example, solving more creative problems under pressure (Creswell et al. 2013) or exerting self-control in a depleting situation (Schmeichel & Vohs 2009).”

• cites Creswell et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that self-affirmation improved performance on a creativity-related problem-solving task under pressure, specifically among underperforming, chronically stressed participants. It proposes greater working-memory availability as a possible explanation to be tested in future research; it does not establish that participants marshaled cognitive resources better because they were less threatened. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Schmeichel & Vohs 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When self-affirmed, people can see the many ordinary stressors of daily life in the context of the big picture.

“But when self-affirmed, people can see the many ordinary stressors of daily life in the context of the big picture (Schmeichel & Vohs 2009, Wakslak & Trope 2009).”

• cites Schmeichel & Vohs 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wakslak & Trope 2009 sourcePartly supported

  The General discussion reports that self-affirmation promotes a “big picture approach” and proposes that it might reduce defensiveness by helping people distinguish immediate concerns from longer-term goals. The paper does not establish that people view the many ordinary stressors of daily life in that way specifically. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

A randomized field experiment that disentangled the effect of student social class from the effect of student race found that values affirmation could help close the social-class achievement gap.

“A randomized field experiment that disentangled the effect of student social class from the effect of student race found that it could (Harackiewicz et al. 2014).”

• cites Harackiewicz et al. 2014 sourceSupported

First-generation students also proved more likely to enroll in the second course in the biology sequence if they had been in the affirmation condition (86% did so) rather than in the control condition (66% did so).

“Remarkably, first-generation students also proved more likely to enroll in the second course in the biology sequence if they had been in the affirmation condition (86% did so) rather than in the control condition (66% did so).”

• cites Harackiewicz et al. 2014 sourceSupported

It cut the achievement gap between them and their more financially advantaged peers in the course by 50%.

“It cut the achievement gap between them and their more financially advantaged peers in the course by 50%.”

• cites Harackiewicz et al. 2014 sourceSupported

For these students, two in-class values affirmations improved their grades in an introductory biology course.

“For these students, two in-class values affirmations improved their grades in an introductory biology course.”

• cites Harackiewicz et al. 2014 sourceSupported

But long-term effects on behavior have been mixed.

“But long-term effects on behavior have been mixed (Harris & Epton 2010).”

• cites Harris & Epton 2010 sourcePartly supported

  In “So, why is there only limited evidence to date about effects on behaviour?” (page not provided), the review reports one successful study but says most studies found no effect on health behaviour. That supports mixed findings on behaviour, but not specifically long-term effects: it says the longest behavioural follow-up was one month. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

But for self-affirmed students, these effects vanished.

“But for self-affirmed students, these effects vanished.”

• cites Harackiewicz et al. 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Process Analyses; page unavailable) say the gap in concern about academic background was completely closed in the values-affirmation condition. But the Results (Primary Analyses; page unavailable) report that the course-grade achievement gap became smaller, not that it vanished. Because the sentence does not specify which effects it means, the source supports only a narrower reading. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Stress can harm health, especially when it is prolonged.

“Stress can harm health, especially when it is prolonged (Sapolsky 2004, Sterling 2004, Taylor 2010).”

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• cites Sterling 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Taylor 2010 sourceSupported

This effect has been confirmed in many studies.

“This effect has been confirmed in many studies (for reviews, see Harris & Epton 2009, 2010;Sherman & Hartson 2011).”

• cites Harris & Epton 2009 sourcePartly supported

  The Summary reports promising evidence that self-affirmation can increase acceptance of health-risk information, and the Message processing section describes findings from several studies. But the Summary (p. 24) says there were relatively few studies and that even the most replicated effects rested on only a handful, so “confirmed in many studies” overstates the review’s assessment. The citing sentence does not specify which effect it means. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Harris & Epton 2010 sourceSupported
• cites Sherman & Hartson 2011Not checked — no full text of the source

One psychiatric intervention reduced the number of suicide reattempts simply by sending former patients timely postcards inquiring into their well-being.

“Indeed, one psychiatric intervention reduced the number of suicide reattempts simply by sending former patients timely postcards inquiring into their well-being (see Carter et al. 2013).”

• cites Carter et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Intervention section describes eight postcards sent during the year after discharge, and the Main findings report about 50% fewer repeat hospital-treated self-poisoning events over five years. But the Results report no significant difference in the proportion of patients who had any repeat episode. The paper measures self-poisoning rather than suicide reattempts specifically, so the claim overstates what was reduced. (LLM, conf=0.89)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Many successful interventions bring people together around positive, value-relevant activities such as meditation, extracurricular activities, and volunteer work.

“Instead, they bring people together around positive, value-relevant activities such as meditation, extracurricular activities, and volunteer work (Creswell et al. 2012, Lyubomirsky & Della Porta 2010, Robinson 2010, Schreier et al. 2013, Wilson 2011).”

• cites Creswell et al. 2012 sourceSupported
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• cites Robinson 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Many successful interventions do not directly confront the problem.

“From increasing happiness to reducing loneliness and depression, from preventing teen pregnancy and academic failure to reducing childhood obesity, many successful interventions do not directly confront the problem.”

• cites Creswell et al. 2012 sourceSupported
• cites Lyubomirsky & Della Porta 2010Not matched

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• cites Robinson 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In the Woolf et al. (2009) study, procedural changes made the affirmation evaluative in nature.

“Second, procedural changes made the affirmation evaluative in nature.”

• cites Woolf et al. 2009 sourceSupported

The motive is to maintain a global narrative of oneself as a moral and adaptive actor, not a specific self-concept.

“First, the motive is to maintain a global narrative of oneself as a moral and adaptive actor (”

• cites Aronson 1969 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Self-affirmation interventions typically have people write about core personal values.

“Self-affirmation interventions typically have people write about core personal values.”

• Also stated in: § What Are Self-Affirmations? · plain

  “Although many inductions of self-affirmation exist, the most studied experimental manipulation has people write about core personal values (McQueen & Klein 2006;cf. Napper et al. 2009).”

• cites McQueen & Klein 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Napper et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A second avenue for intervention focuses on changing not people's appraisal of a specific challenge but their appraisal of themselves.

“A second avenue for intervention focuses on changing not people's appraisal of a specific challenge but their appraisal of themselves.”

Psychological threat represents an inner alarm that arouses vigilance and the motive to reaffirm the self.

“Psychological threat represents an inner alarm that arouses vigilance and the motive to reaffirm the self (Steele 1988).”

• cites Steele 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The self can draw on a variety of roles and identities to maintain its perceived integrity.

“However, the self can draw on a variety of roles and identities to maintain its perceived integrity.”

One avenue is to encourage people to appraise a difficult circumstance in a hopeful and nondefensive way that sustains the perceived adequacy of the self.

“One avenue is to encourage people to appraise a difficult circumstance in a hopeful and nondefensive way that, in turn, sustains the perceived adequacy of the self.”

Psychological threat can raise a barrier to adaptive change.

“Thus, psychological threat can raise a barrier to adaptive change.”

That everyday events can bring about feelings of threat and trigger extreme responses attests to the power and pervasiveness of the self-integrity motive.

“That everyday events can bring about feelings of threat and trigger extreme responses attests to the power and pervasiveness of the self-integrity motive.”

Self-affirmation interventions can curb negative outcomes of self-integrity threats.

“However, an intervention known as self-affirmation can curb these negative outcomes.”

Events that threaten self-integrity arouse stress and self-protective defenses that can hamper performance and growth.

“Events that threaten self-integrity arouse stress and self-protective defenses that can hamper performance and growth.”

Self-affirmations can have lasting benefits when they touch off a cycle of adaptive potential, a positive feedback loop between the self-system and the social system that propagates adaptive outcomes over time.

“Like other interventions and experiences, self-affirmations can have lasting benefits when they touch off a cycle of adaptive potential, a positive feedback loop between the self-system and the social system that propagates adaptive outcomes over time.”

Successful social psychological interventions help individuals access this narrative process through two avenues.

“Successful social psychological interventions help individuals access this narrative process through two avenues (see also Wilson 2011).”

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Although the objective stakes of many situations seem low, the subjective stakes for the self can be high.

“Although the objective stakes of many of these situations seem low, the subjective stakes for the self can be high.”

This pattern suggests greater engagement among affirmed individuals in learning from their mistakes.

“This pattern suggests greater engagement among affirmed individuals in learning from their mistakes.”

Affirmations foster an approach orientation to threat rather than avoidance.

“Third, affirmations foster an approach orientation to threat rather than avoidance.”

One way that self-affirmations promote change is by curbing defensive reactions.

“One way that self-affirmations promote change is by curbing defensive reactions.”

A key aspect of the affirmation intervention is that its content is self-generated and tailored to tap into each person's particular valued identity.

“Thus, a key aspect of the affirmation intervention is that its content is self-generated and tailored to tap into each person's particular valued identity (Sherman 2013).”

• cites Sherman 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In some cases, the effects of the intervention even grow.

“In some cases, the effects of the intervention even grow.”

Such flexibility can be adaptive.

“Such flexibility can be adaptive.”

The motive for self-integrity is not to be superior or excellent, but to be 'good enough'-to be competent enough in a constellation of domains to feel that one is a good person, moral and adaptive.

“Second, the motive for self-integrity is not to be superior or excellent, but to be”

In summary, affirmations help people to maintain a narrative of personal adequacy in threatening circumstances.

“In summary, affirmations help people to maintain a narrative of personal adequacy in threatening circumstances.”

A key feature of these interventions is that their effectiveness depends on the point in the process in which they are introduced.

“A key feature of these interventions is that their effectiveness depends on the point in the process in which they are introduced.”

Three principles explain how and when processes propel themselves through time in cycles of adaptive potential.

“Three principles explain how and when processes propel themselves through time in cycles of adaptive potential (Cohen et al. 2012, Garcia & Cohen 2012, Yeager & Walton 2011).”

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• cites Garcia & Cohen 2012Not matched

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• cites Yeager & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The most studied experimental manipulation of self-affirmation has people write about core personal values.

“Although many inductions of self-affirmation exist, the most studied experimental manipulation has people write about core personal values (McQueen & Klein 2006;cf. Napper et al. 2009).”

• cites McQueen & Klein 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Napper et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

People often affirm themselves by writing about their connections to other people and to purposes and projects outside themselves.

“As Table 1 also illustrates, people often affirm themselves by writing about their connections to other people and to purposes and projects outside themselves (Shnabel et al. 2013; see also Crocker et al. 2008).”

• cites Shnabel et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Crocker et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The motive for self-integrity is not to esteem or praise oneself but rather to act in ways worthy of esteem or praise.

“Third, the motive for self-integrity is not to esteem or praise oneself but rather to act in ways worthy of esteem or praise.”

People can thus better deal with the threat in a constructive way, rather than spend mental energy on avoidance, suppression, and rationalization.

“People can thus better deal with the threat in a constructive way, rather than spend mental energy on avoidance, suppression, and rationalization (see Koole et al. 1999, Taylor & Walton 2011).”

• cites Koole et al. 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Taylor & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Like any formative experience, a successful intervention is not an isolated event but rather a turning point in a process.

“Like any formative experience, a successful intervention is not an isolated event but rather a turning point in a process (see Elder 1998).”

• cites Elder 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Better performance may affirm the self, leading to still better performance, further affirming the self, and so on, as improvement maintains or even builds on itself.

“Better performance may affirm the self, leading to still better performance, further affirming the self, and so on, as improvement maintains or even builds on itself.”

The flexibility of the self-system can also promote adaptation, especially in dynamic social systems.

“The flexibility of the self-system can also promote adaptation, especially in dynamic social systems.”

Studies show that defensive denial, bias, and distortion in one domain are lessened by affirmations of self-integrity in another.

“Studies show that defensive denial, bias, and distortion in one domain are lessened by affirmations of self-integrity in another.”

The flexibility of the self-system can also be harnessed for positive ends.

“However, the flexibility of the self-system can also be harnessed for positive ends.”

When well-timed and well-situated, an intervention touches off a series of reciprocally reinforcing interactions between the self-system and the social system.

“When well-timed and well-situated, it touches off a series of reciprocally reinforcing interactions between the self-system and the social system (see Figure 1).”

Because of recursion, the output of a process such as self-affirmation can cycle back as its input, thus perpetuating itself.

“First, because of recursion, the output of a process such as self-affirmation can cycle back as its input, thus perpetuating itself (Cohen et al. 2009, Wilson & Linville 1982).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wilson & Linville 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

People can import into a threatened domain the sense of personal integrity that they feel in another.

“People can import into a threatened domain the sense of personal integrity that they feel in another.”

If a threat is seen as important and addressable, affirmations make it less likely that people will shrink away from the threat or deny its importance to themselves.

“If a threat is seen as important and addressable (Vohs et al. 2013), affirmations make it less likely that people will shrink away from the threat or deny its importance to themselves.”

• cites Vohs et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Because a threat is seen in the context of an expansive view of the self, it has less impact on psychological well-being.

“Second, because a threat is seen in the context of an expansive view of the self, it has less impact on psychological well-being (Cohen et al. 2009, Cook et al. 2012, Sherman et al. 2013).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cook et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

To affirm the self, an event need foster only a sense of adequacy in a personally valued domain, not a perception of overall excellence.

“An implication for intervention is that, to affirm the self, an event need foster only a sense of adequacy in a personally valued domain, not a perception of overall excellence.”

Thus they can sustain a global sense of adequacy while adaptively confronting a specific threat.

“Thus they can sustain a global sense of adequacy while adaptively confronting a specific threat.”

A specific threat and its implications for the self thus command less vigilance.

“A specific threat and its implications for the self thus command less vigilance.”

Several intervention studies find that the effects of self-affirming writing activities can persist, for instance improving the grades of at-risk minority students years later.

“But several of the intervention studies to be discussed find that the effects of self-affirming writing activities can persist, for instance improving the grades of at-risk minority students years later (Cohen et al. 2009, Sherman et al. 2013).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Because of interaction, the output of a process can interact with other processes in the environment.

“Second, because of interaction, the output of a process can interact with other processes in the environment.”

Activities that can seem like distractions can also function as self-affirmations.

“Activities that can seem like distractions can also function as self-affirmations.”

Social psychology has established that brief interventions can have large and long-term effects when they address key psychological processes.

“In fact, social psychology has established that brief interventions can have large and long-term effects when they address key psychological processes, as pioneered in the studies of Lewin and Rokeach described in the introductory section of this review (for reviews, see Ross & Nisbett 2011, Wilson 2011).”

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• cites Wilson 2011Not matched

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Because of recursion and interaction, the benefits of an intervention can maintain themselves through the progressive accumulation of their own consequences.

“Because of recursion and interaction, the benefits of an intervention can maintain themselves through the progressive accumulation of their own consequences (see Caspi et al. 1987).”

• cites Caspi et al. 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

By interacting with these processes, an intervention can trigger consequences that have causal power unto themselves.

“By interacting with these processes, an intervention can trigger consequences that have causal power unto themselves.”

This pattern is consistent with the notion that the intervention interrupted a recursive cycle in which threat and poor performance fed on one another and worsened outcomes over time.

“This pattern is consistent with the notion that the intervention interrupted a recursive cycle in which threat and poor performance fed on one another and worsened outcomes over time.”

And timely self-affirmations can help remedy them.

“And timely self-affirmations can help remedy them.”

For long-term effects to occur, a process need not recur, as in recursion, but can instead feed into altogether different processes.

“For long-term effects to occur, a process need not recur, as in recursion, but can instead feed into altogether different processes.”

An early advantage can thus channel people into subsequent experiences that perpetuate and broaden the advantage.

“An early advantage can thus channel people into subsequent experiences that perpetuate and broaden the advantage.”

However, a moment of validation at a threatening transition could improve a trajectory.

“However, a moment of validation at a threatening transition could improve a trajectory (Cohen et al. 2009, Yeager & Walton 2011).”

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• cites Yeager & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Together, the results of these field experiments suggest that affirmation removed a barrier that prevented the full expression of students' potential.

“Together, the results of these field experiments suggest that affirmation removed a barrier that prevented the full expression of students' potential (Walton & Spencer 2009).”

• cites Walton & Spencer 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For instance, the affirmation halved the percentage of African American students who received a D or F in the first term of the course in which the intervention was given.

“For instance, the affirmation halved the percentage of African American students who received a D or F in the first term of the course in which the intervention was given (Cohen et al. 2006).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype.

“Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype (Martens et al. 2006, Shapiro et al. 2012, Taylor & Walton 2011).”

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• cites Taylor & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Also suggestive of a recursive process, the most threatened subgroup derived the greatest lasting benefit from affirmation.

“Also suggestive of a recursive process, the most threatened subgroup, those who would be most undermined by threat and its accumulating consequences, derived the greatest lasting benefit from affirmation.”

Effects then reverberate through the interconnected forces in a social system.

“Effects then reverberate through the interconnected forces in a social system (Caspi et al. 1987;Caspi & Moffitt 1995;Elder 1974Elder , 1998;;Lewin 1997Lewin /1948;;Wilson 2011).”

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The consequences of the intervention can thus break free of their origin and propagate change through time.

“The consequences of the intervention can thus break free of their origin and propagate change through time.”

An intervention need not create new processes but may simply interface with these existing ones.

“An intervention need not create new processes but may simply interface with these existing ones.”

Values affirmation has also helped female college students enrolled in introductory physics, a gateway science course.

“Values affirmation has also helped another group of students who contend with social identity threat: female college students enrolled in introductory physics, a gateway science course (Miyake et al. 2010).”

• cites Miyake et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

An intervention can trigger an enduring shift in perception because of subjective construal.

“Third, because of subjective construal, an intervention can trigger an enduring shift in perception (Sherman et al. 2013; see also Ross & Nisbett 2011, Wilson 2011).”

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• cites Wilson 2011Not matched

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In another field experiment, self-affirmation increased prosocial behavior among students with a history of antisocial behavior, as assessed by their teachers.

“In another field experiment, self-affirmation increased prosocial behavior among students with a history of antisocial behavior, as assessed by their teachers (Thomaes et al. 2012).”

• cites Thomaes et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Like a fortuitous event, even a brief intervention can have a lasting impact if it is appropriately situated and timed.

“Like a fortuitous event, even a brief intervention can have a lasting impact if it is appropriately situated and timed.”

School can be especially threatening for members of historically marginalized groups such as African Americans and Latino Americans.

“School can be especially threatening for members of historically marginalized groups such as African Americans and Latino Americans (Steele 2010).”

• cites Steele 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmation lessened the extent to which students with grandiose self-views reacted to threat by hitting, name calling, rumor spreading, or committing other antisocial acts as assessed by their classmates.

“Affirmation lessened the extent to which students with grandiose self-views, a risk factor for aggression, reacted to threat (i.e., a drop in their self-esteem) by hitting, name calling, rumor spreading, or committing other antisocial acts as assessed by their classmates.”

• cites Thomaes et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Two years later, affirmed African Americans and Latino Americans continued to earn higher GPAs than their nonaffirmed peers.

“Two years later, affirmed African Americans and Latino Americans continued to earn higher GPAs than their nonaffirmed peers (Cohen et al. 2009, Sherman et al. 2013).”

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• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The processes that the intervention set in motion in the first year sufficed to explain its continuing effect in the second year.

“The processes that the intervention set in motion in the first year sufficed to explain its continuing effect in the second year (Cohen et al. 2009).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The values affirmation intervention significantly improved the grade point average (GPA) of the identity-threatened groups, African American students in one school and Latino American students in two others, in their core courses.

“The values affirmation intervention significantly improved the grade point average (GPA) of the identity-threatened groups, African American students in one school (Cohen et al. 2006(Cohen et al. , 2009) ) and Latino American students in two others (Sherman et al. 2013), in their core courses (English, math, social studies, and science).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
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• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even if the objective environment remains constant, the subjective experience of it may change.

“Even if the objective environment remains constant, the subjective experience of it may change.”

When affirmed, people tend to narrate adversity as an isolated event rather than an indictment of their adequacy.

“When affirmed, people tend to narrate adversity as an isolated event rather than an indictment of their adequacy (Cohen et al. 2009).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

But in contrast to the lab, in real-world academic and work settings, social identity threat is not acute but chronic.

“But in contrast to the lab, in real-world academic and work settings, social identity threat is not acute but chronic (Cohen & Garcia 2008, Garcia & Cohen 2012, Yeager & Walton 2011).”

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• cites Yeager & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

An intervention may thus have lasting effects by changing the way people filter information about themselves and their environment.

“An intervention may thus have lasting effects by changing the way people filter information about themselves and their environment.”

Indeed, changes in attitude and motivation seldom suffice for long-term behavioral change.

“Indeed, changes in attitude and motivation seldom suffice for long-term behavioral change (Lewin 1997/1948, Ross & Nisbett 2011).”

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• cites Ross & Nisbett 2011Not matched

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Given this, values affirmations may help buffer people against stress by allowing them to anchor their sense of adequacy in another domain where it is less subject to question.

“Given this, values affirmations may help buffer people against stress by allowing them to anchor their sense of adequacy in another domain where it is less subject to question.”

However, timely self-affirmation can open people up to threatening health information.

“However, timely self-affirmation can open people up to threatening health information.”

One encourages people to form realistic, concrete plans for how to implement their new health-related goals in specific situations.

“One encourages people to form realistic, concrete plans for how to implement their new health-related goals in specific situations (Gollwitzer & Sheeran 2006).”

• cites Gollwitzer & Sheeran 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The effects of affirmation on attitude and motivation tend to persist, even one month later.

“The effects of affirmation on attitude and motivation tend to persist, even one month later (Harris et al. 2007, Harris & Napper 2005).”

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• cites Harris & Napper 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

First, affirmation enables more balanced information processing.

“First, affirmation enables more balanced information processing.”

With their self-integrity less on trial, self-affirmed individuals can better confront threatening information and evaluate it in a manner less tethered to their needs for self-integrity.

“With their self-integrity less on trial, self-affirmed individuals can better confront threatening information and evaluate it in a manner less tethered to their needs for self-integrity (Klein et al. 2011).”

• cites Klein et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

This effect on motivation persisted one week later.

“This effect on motivation persisted one week later.”

• cites Harris et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Consistent with this, several findings suggest that self-affirmed minorities were more likely to see adversity as an isolated event rather than a threat to self.

“Consistent with this, several findings suggest that self-affirmed minorities were more likely to see adversity as an isolated event rather than a threat to self (see Cook et al. 2012;Sherman et al. 2013, study 2).”

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• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Once again, the stress-reduction effect of the intervention was concentrated among the most threatened: students worried about being disliked and seen as unintelligent.

“Once again, the stress-reduction effect of the intervention was concentrated among the most threatened: students worried about being disliked and seen as unintelligent.”

• cites Sherman et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Stress, especially when chronic, can threaten the integrity of the self.

“Stress, especially when chronic, can threaten the integrity of the self (Keough & Markus 1998).”

• cites Keough & Markus 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

By the morning of their midterm, nonaffirmed students showed a marked increase in epinephrine, as measured by urinary catecholamines, hormones involved in the fight-or-flight response.

“By the morning of their midterm, nonaffirmed students showed a marked increase in epinephrine, as measured by urinary catecholamines, hormones involved in the fight-or-flight response.”

• cites Sherman et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Among affirmed participants, 59% took leaflets about how to quit smoking, compared with only 37% of nonaffirmed participants.

“Among affirmed participants, 59% took leaflets about how to quit smoking, compared with only 37% of nonaffirmed participants.”

• cites Armitage et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When self-affirmed, participants ate more portions of fruits and vegetables over the following week, as assessed by a validated daily diary instrument.

“When self-affirmed, participants ate more portions of fruits and vegetables over the following week, as assessed by a validated daily diary instrument.”

• cites Epton & Harris 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmed students did not show an increase in epinephrine.

“Affirmed students did not show an increase in epinephrine.”

• cites Sherman et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Physiological evidence of the stress-buffering effect of affirmation was found among college undergraduates facing a real-world stressor-the midterm exam that they had singled out as most stressful.

“Physiological evidence of the stress-buffering effect of affirmation was found among college undergraduates facing a real-world stressor-the midterm exam that they had singled out as most stressful (Sherman et al. 2009; see also Creswell et al. 2005).”

• cites Sherman et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Creswell et al. 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Like education outcomes, health outcomes are also driven by recursive, interactive processes.

“Like education outcomes, health outcomes are also driven by recursive, interactive processes.”

However, in some studies, affirmed participants fail to make the behavioral changes that they predict they will.

“However, in some studies, affirmed participants fail to make the behavioral changes that they predict they will (Harris et al. 2007, Harris & Napper 2005, Reed & Aspinwall 1998; for a review, see Harris & Epton 2010).”

• cites Harris et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Harris & Napper 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Reed & Aspinwall 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

To achieve long-term benefits with an affirmation, it may be essential to ensure early behavioral wins.

“To achieve long-term benefits with an affirmation, it may be essential to ensure early behavioral wins.”

Relative to a control condition, both affirmations reduced consumption of alcohol, as assessed by self-reports on a validated measure one month later.

“Relative to a control condition, both affirmations reduced consumption of alcohol, as assessed by self-reports on a validated measure one month later.”

• cites Armitage et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmation has increased openness to information about the life-threatening habit of smoking.

“Affirmation has increased openness to information about the life-threatening habit of smoking.”

Two strategies to promote long-term behavior change, and spur a cycle of adaptive potential, have received suggestive support.

“Two strategies to promote long-term behavior change, and spur a cycle of adaptive potential, have received suggestive support.”

The aspects of the patient-provider exchange that affirmation improved are predictive of patients' adherence to their doctors' prescribed care.

“Indeed, the aspects of the exchange that affirmation improved are predictive of patients' adherence to their doctors' prescribed care”

• cites Havranek et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Content analyses suggested that the active ingredient in women's essays was the act of affirming the self.

“Content analyses suggested that the active ingredient in women's essays was the act of affirming the self.”

• cites Creswell et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmation increased prescribed medication use among hypertensive African Americans, from 36% to 42% at a 12-month follow-up.

“In one study, affirmation increased prescribed medication use among hypertensive African Americans, from 36% to 42% at a 12-month followup”

• cites Ogedegbe et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

When affirmed, people are less likely to derogate concessions offered by adversaries in a negotiation.

“When affirmed, people are less likely to derogate concessions offered by adversaries in a negotiation”

• cites Ward et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Those who benefited most from the meaning-making affirmation were students who reported the greatest number of daily hassles that implicated their self-worth.

“As evidence that the exercises helped students to integrate stressors into a self-affirming narrative, those who benefited most were students who reported the greatest number of daily hassles that implicated their self-worth”

• cites Keough & Markus 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Approximately half of patients fail to adhere to their doctor's regimens for treatment or for prevention of illness.

“Approximately half of patients fail to adhere to their doctor's regimens for treatment or for prevention of illness”

• cites Sabaté 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Severe or prolonged stress can interfere with treatment and recovery.

“Severe or prolonged stress can interfere with treatment and recovery”

• cites Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

One of the strongest predictors of marital distress is defensiveness.

“One of the strongest predictors of marital distress is defensiveness”

• cites Gottman 2011Not checked — no full text of the source

Self-affirming writing was associated with less subjective distress immediately after the writing exercises.

“Consistent with the stress-buffering effects of self-affirmation, self-affirming writing was associated with less subjective distress immediately after the writing exercises.”

• cites Creswell et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Expressive writing, in which patients reflected on their thoughts and feelings about their experience with breast cancer, reduced self-reported illness symptoms at a three-month follow-up in women with early-stage breast cancer, relative to writing about facts about cancer and treatment.

“The original study found that expressive writing, in which patients reflected on their thoughts and feelings about their experience with breast cancer, reduced self-reported illness symptoms at a three-month follow-up, relative to writing about facts about cancer and treatment”

• cites Stanton et al. 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmation seems to provide reassurance that a social or political identity, one that would otherwise fix people's evaluations and negotiation positions, is but one of many valued identities.

“Affirmation seems to provide reassurance that a social or political identity, one that would otherwise fix people's evaluations and negotiation positions, is but one of many valued identities.”

The percentage of patients who achieved the recommended level of physical activity rose from 37% in the control condition to 55% in the affirmation condition.

“The percentage of patients who achieved the recommended level of physical activity rose from 37% in the control condition to 55% in the affirmation condition.”

• cites Peterson et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Arab American men were able to induce prejudiced people to consider their perspective of being unfairly treated in the wake of 9/11 when they first asked them self-affirming questions.

“Arab American men were able to induce prejudiced people to consider their perspective of being unfairly treated in the wake of 9/11 when they first asked them self-affirming questions”

• cites Stone et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As assessed by an established coding protocol, communications between patient and provider proved superior among affirmed patients than among nonaffirmed patients.

“As assessed by an established coding protocol, the communications between the patient and the provider proved superior among affirmed patients than among nonaffirmed patients.”

• cites Havranek et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A series of large randomized trials found benefits of an affirmation-informed intervention for at-risk individuals on a medical regimen.

“The February 2012 issue of Archives of Internal Medicine featured a series of large randomized trials that found benefits of an affirmation-informed intervention for at-risk individuals on a medical regimen.”

• cites Ogedegbe et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Peterson et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mancuso et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In negotiation, affirmation can lessen the escalation of commitment often observed as partisans' identity becomes bound to the positions they advocate.

“In negotiation, affirmation can lessen the escalation of commitment often observed as partisans' identity becomes bound to the positions they advocate”

• cites Sivanathan et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Vigilance may help explain why various afflictions-poor sleep, obesity, hypertension, heart disease-cluster among distressed populations.

“Vigilance may help explain why various afflictions-poor sleep, obesity, hypertension, heart disease-cluster among distressed populations (Sterling 2004; see also Walton & Cohen 2011).”

• cites Sterling 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Walton & Cohen 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Psychological threat can increase appetite for sugary and high-fat comfort foods.

“More generally, psychological threat can increase appetite for sugary and high-fat comfort foods”

• cites Cornil & Chandon 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sterling 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Approximately 2.5 months after a values affirmation exercise, affirmed participants had lost more weight than nonaffirmed participants.

“Approximately 2.5 months later, affirmed participants had lost more weight than nonaffirmed participants.”

• cites Logel & Cohen 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

People benefited from expressive writing not because it led them to reappraise their cancer but because it helped them to reappraise themselves.

“People benefited from the expressive writing not so much because it led them to reappraise their cancer but because it helped them to reappraise themselves.”

Their experiences throughout the school year made the affirmed and nonaffirmed increasingly dissimilar, as their felt belonging in school diverged with time.

“Their experiences throughout the school year made the affirmed and nonaffirmed increasingly dissimilar, as their felt belonging in school diverged with time”

• cites Cook et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

An intervention need not introduce new processes but can instead act as a triggering mechanism for existing ones.

“An intervention need not introduce new processes but can instead act as a triggering mechanism for existing ones.”

The long-term effects of an affirmation on middle school minority students underscored the recursive, interactive processes that turn early performance outcomes in school into enduring advantages and disadvantages.

“The long-term effects of an affirmation on middle school minority students underscored the recursive, interactive processes that turn early performance outcomes in school into enduring advantages and disadvantages”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Because of the interaction between the person and the social environment, different processes can feed off one another's effects.

“Because of the interaction between the person and the social environment, different processes can feed off one another's effects.”

Because of recursion, a process such as self-affirmation can feed off its own consequences.

“Because of recursion, a process such as self-affirmation can feed off its own consequences”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wilson 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

An intervention that bolstered students' sense of belonging benefited not only their grades but also their self-reported well-being and health three years later.

“For example, an intervention that bolstered students' sense of belonging benefited not only their grades but also their selfreported well-being and health three years later”

• cites Walton & Cohen 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In one study variation, teachers were permitted to read their students' affirmation essays; relative to a standard affirmation and a control condition, teacher awareness increased student grades.

“For instance, in one study variation, teachers were permitted to read their students' affirmation essays (Bowen et al. 2012).Relative to a standard affirmation and a control condition, teacher awareness increased student grades.”

• cites Bowen et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Social psychological interventions such as affirmation can channel people onto a cycle of adaptive potential.

“Social psychological interventions such as affirmation can channel people onto a cycle of adaptive potential (Figure 1).”

The effects of self-affirmation interventions can persist for a long time.

“The effects of self-affirmation interventions can persist for a long time.”

The system can respond in ways that undo intervention effects, if, for example, a teacher raises the curve in response to improved grades.

“And the system can respond in ways that undo intervention effects, if, for example, a teacher raises the curve in response to improved grades”

• cites Garcia & Cohen 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Heckman et al. 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A school may transform a psychological effect into a structural reality-as when self-affirmed children earn higher grades and are then admitted into more advanced courses.

“For example, a school may transform a psychological effect into a structural reality-as when self-affirmed children earn higher grades and are then admitted into more advanced courses”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmed students experienced many of the same stressors and slights as others but without the detrimental impact that nonaffirmed students experienced.

“Affirmed students experienced many of the same stressors and slights as others but without the detrimental impact that nonaffirmed students experienced.”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cook et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Social systems contain variables that interact with the process and affect its manifestation.

“It is because social systems contain variables that interact with the process and affect its manifestation”

• cites Paluck 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The intervention's effect on relationship security and quality persisted two weeks later.

“The intervention's effect on relationship security and quality persisted two weeks later.”

• cites Marigold et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Over time the cumulative advantages of an intervention or formative experience can transform the actor.

“Over time the cumulative advantages of an intervention or formative experience can transform the actor.”

Such affirming gestures seem especially beneficial for people who feel insecure in their relationships.

“Such affirming gestures seem especially beneficial for people who feel insecure in their relationships”

• cites Overall et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Not all intervention effects persist.

“But not all intervention effects persist.”

A standard affirmation reduced the defensive distancing strategies that low-self-esteem people in long-term relationships use to regulate the risk of losing the affection of their partner.

“In one study, a standard affirmation reduced the defensive distancing strategies that low-self-esteem people in long-term relationships use to regulate the risk of losing the affection of their partner”

• cites Jaremka et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A positive feedback loop between the self-system and the social system carries the intervention's effects through time to improve the actor's adaptive outcomes.

“A positive feedback loop between the self-system and the social system carries the intervention's effects through time to improve the actor's adaptive outcomes.”

Experimentally manipulated interventions can reveal much about the recursive and interactive processes at work in a system.

“First, experimentally manipulated interventions can reveal much about the recursive and interactive processes at work in a system”

• cites Lewin 1997/1948Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

People place themselves in social environments-friendships, marriages, jobs-that can reinforce their beliefs, values, and identity for a lifetime.

“For example, people place themselves in social environments-friendships, marriages, jobs-that can reinforce their beliefs, values, and identity for a lifetime”

• cites Alwin et al. 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Caspi & Moffitt 1995Not checked — no full text of the source

Because recursive processes take time to develop, a full understanding of them requires longitudinal research, not just the freeze-frame of a short-term measure.

“Second, because recursive processes take time to develop, a full understanding of them requires longitudinal research, not just the freeze-frame of a short-term measure”

• cites Lewin 1943 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Obradović et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Without cultivating a lasting shift in the way people construe themselves or their social world, an intervention's impact may fade after it ends.

“Without cultivating a lasting shift in the way people construe themselves or their social world, an intervention's impact may fade after it ends, as people slide back to their old habits, seek the familiar, and avoid challenges that would promote their continued growth”

• cites Caspi & Moffitt 1995Not checked — no full text of the source

Relational insecurity can lead people to adopt a distant but self-protective social demeanor, which can evoke rejection from others, deepening insecurity, in a self-fulfilling prophecy of social rejection.

“Relational insecurity can also lead people to adopt a distant but self-protective social demeanor, which can evoke rejection from others, deepening insecurity, in a “self-fulfilling prophecy of social rejection””

• cites Stinson et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For intervention effects to last, they may need to bring about a long-term shift in subjective construal, the beliefs and schemas that filter experience.

“For intervention effects to last, they may need to bring about a long-term shift in subjective construal, the beliefs and schemas that filter experience: an optimistic outlook, openness to challenge, and a self-construal as a person who belongs and can succeed in new settings”

• cites Ross & Nisbett 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In contexts where psychological threat contributes little to outcomes relative to other factors such as a dysfunctional school or neighborhood violence, little benefit of the standard affirmation would be expected.

“In contexts where psychological threat contributes little to outcomes relative to other factors such as a dysfunctional school or neighborhood violence, little benefit of the standard affirmation would be expected.”

High-self-esteem people act more defensive in other contexts.

“Low-self-esteem participants act more defensive in some contexts ( Jaremka et al. 2011), whereas high-self-esteem people act more defensive in others (Landau & Greenberg 2006; see also Aronson 1969).”

• cites Landau & Greenberg 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Aronson 1969 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Sometimes threat and defensiveness foster adaptive outcomes.

“But sometimes threat and defensiveness foster adaptive outcomes (e.g., Rokeach 1973, Stone et al. 1994).”

• cites Rokeach 1973Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Stone et al. 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Interventions such as affirmation may also have larger benefits if timed to the onset of key developmental transitions.

“Interventions such as affirmation may also have larger benefits if timed to the onset of key developmental transitions.”

Low-self-esteem participants act more defensive in some contexts.

“Low-self-esteem participants act more defensive in some contexts ( Jaremka et al. 2011), whereas high-self-esteem people act more defensive in others (Landau & Greenberg 2006; see also Aronson 1969).”

• cites Jaremka et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In all the problem domains discussed, psychological threat stands in tension with hidden positive forces, such as the desire and ability to learn, to be healthy, and to have rewarding relationships.

“Indeed, in all the problem domains discussed, psychological threat stands in tension with hidden positive forces, such as the desire and ability to learn, to be healthy, and to have rewarding relationships.”

Any resource can provide a bridge to better outcomes if timed to key transitions and choice points.

“Any resource can provide a bridge to better outcomes if timed to key transitions and choice points”

• cites Elder 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bronfenbrenner 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Social psychological interventions like affirmation are not panaceas but catalysts.

“Social psychological interventions like affirmation are not panaceas but catalysts (Yeager & Walton 2011).”

• cites Yeager & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Social problems have a psychological side that, if not addressed, will limit the effectiveness of reforms.

“Social problems have a psychological side that, if not addressed, will limit the effectiveness of reforms.”

The effect of early timing on first-term class grades equaled the effect of the presence versus absence of the intervention in previous research.

“Strikingly, the effect of early timing on first-term class grades equaled the effect of the presence versus absence of the intervention in previous research”

• cites Cohen et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Affirmation lifts a barrier, psychological threat, that would otherwise block the impact of positive forces in the person or the situation.

“Affirmation lifts a barrier, psychological threat, that would otherwise block the impact of positive forces in the person or the situation.”

People who experience social identity threat in a setting are at particular risk of threat.

“So do people who experience social identity threat in a setting (Steele 2010).”

• cites Steele 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Most studies focus on domains where self-protective responses are harmful and affirmation thus prompts a more adaptive response.

“Moreover, most studies focus on domains where self-protective responses are harmful (e.g., resisting health information) and affirmation thus prompts a more adaptive response.”

Benefits of affirmation will tend to persist more in contexts that reinforce the change.

“Likewise, benefits will tend to persist more in contexts that reinforce the change.”

Interventions are more impactful if they take into account the psychological landscape of social problems.

“Interventions are more impactful if they take into account the psychological landscape of social problems.”

Early experiences anchor people's expectations for threat or safety in an environment.

“Finally, early experiences anchor people's expectations for threat or safety in an environment”

• cites Miller et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Worthman et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Dispositional moderators may vary by context.

“But dispositional moderators may vary by context.”

Psychological threat can suppress the benefits of structural reforms and institutions.

“Not only can psychological threat suppress the benefits of structural reforms and institutions.”

For affirmations to yield benefit, psychological threat must be a significant impediment to improvement.

“For affirmations to yield benefit, psychological threat must be a significant impediment to improvement.”

One of the best ways to make predictions about the effect of affirmation is to identify whether a threat response occurs at baseline.

“One of the best ways to make predictions about the effect of affirmation is to identify whether a threat response occurs at baseline.”

A major determinant of the effectiveness of an intervention is timeliness.

“A major determinant of the effectiveness of an intervention is timeliness.”

At the dispositional level, people who are under threat benefit most from affirmation.

“At the dispositional level, people who are under threat benefit most from affirmation.”

Affirmation is a tool to unleash potentials suppressed by threat, positive or negative.

“Affirmation is a tool to unleash potentials suppressed by threat, positive or negative.”

A study with genetically identical mice found that small early differences in roaming activity became self-reinforcing, compounding over time into large differences in behavior and brain structure.

“A continuity between humans and lower animals is suggested by a study with genetically identical mice in which small early differences in roaming activity became self-reinforcing, compounding over time into large differences in behavior and brain structure”

• cites Freund et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When the salient identity was being an open-minded negotiator, affirmation led people to be more closed-minded.

“When the salient identity was being an open-minded negotiator, affirmation led people to be more closed-minded (Cohen et al. 2007).”

• cites Cohen et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Over large time scales, early outcomes matter more because their consequences can compound.

“Over large time scales, early outcomes matter more because their consequences can compound”

• cites Cohen et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sherman et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wilson 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Improvements in school curriculum may produce little gain if students find the classroom threatening rather than safe.

“Improvements in school curriculum may produce little gain if students find the classroom threatening rather than safe.”

Without resources for growth, affirmation may even trigger disengagement.

“Without resources for growth, affirmation may even trigger disengagement (see Vohs & Schmeichel 2013).”

• cites Vohs & Schmeichel 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The effect of affirmation reveals less about its intrinsic power and more about the potentials untapped in a person or an environment.

“In a sense, the effect of affirmation reveals less about its intrinsic power and more about the potentials untapped in a person or an environment.”

The effectiveness of affirmation depends on prior conditions or moderators.

“As with almost any intervention, the effectiveness of affirmation thus depends on prior conditions or moderators.”

Affirmed African Americans were buffered against the effects of early adversity.

“Affirmed African Americans, however, were buffered against the effects of early adversity.”

• cites Cook et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even a small improvement can sum into large consequences if the environment repeatedly reinforces the desired behavior.

“Conversely, even a small improvement can sum into large consequences if the environment repeatedly reinforces the desired behavior, as many institutions are designed to do.”

Affirmation will afford little benefit if the motivation and ability to improve are absent.

“Affirmation will afford little benefit if the motivation and ability to improve are absent.”

A small but consistent advantage in student test performance will compound into a sizable increase in cumulative GPA.

“Just as small but consistent advantages in baseball batting averages compound into large differences in success over a season or career, a small but consistent advantage in student test performance will compound into a sizable increase in cumulative GPA”

• cites Abelson 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cohen et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For affirmation to afford benefits, there must be forces to impel improvement once psychological threat is lifted.

“For affirmation to afford benefits, there must be forces to impel improvement once psychological threat is lifted.”

When threat and defensiveness foster adaptive outcomes, affirmation should lead to negative effects.

“In such cases affirmation should lead to negative effects.”

In a field experiment, affirmation benefited minority students' classroom grades more if it took place in the first week of school, before any drop in performance and its ensuing psychological toll, than if it took place at the standard time a few weeks later.

“In a field experiment, affirmation benefited minority students' classroom grades more if it took place in the first week of school, before any drop in performance and its ensuing psychological toll, than if it took place at the standard time a few weeks later”

• cites Cook et al. 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Cumulative consequences of small initial differences, whether due to chance, personality, or an intervention, can transform the actor.

“Cumulative consequences of small initial differences, whether due to chance, personality, or an intervention, can transform the actor.”

The ability to generate self-affirming meanings spontaneously is a key source of individual differences in responsiveness to affirmation.

“Another key source of individual differences in responsiveness to affirmation is the ability to generate self-affirming meanings spontaneously (see Pietersma & Dijkstra 2012).”

• cites Pietersma & Dijkstra 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Psychological threat can hide the successful impacts that structural reforms and institutions have already achieved.

“It can also hide the successful impacts that they have already achieved.”

The ability to create affirming events, reminders, or meanings seems to contribute to well-being and health.

“More generally, the ability to create affirming events, reminders, or meanings seems to contribute to well-being and health.”

With negative emotions kept at bay, the resilient tend to be good-natured rather than ill-tempered and defensive.

“With negative emotions kept at bay, the resilient tend to be good-natured rather than ill-tempered and defensive.”

• cites Caspi & Moffitt 1995Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lyubomirsky & Della Porta 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The core areas typically affirmed-relationships, family, and spiritual and religious values-dovetail with the hot spots for intervention in resilience research.

“The core areas typically affirmed-relationships, family, and spiritual and religious values-dovetail with the hot spots for intervention in resilience research (Masten & Obradović 2006).”

• cites Masten & Obradović 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

If students were aware of the purpose of affirmation, they might see it as a means to an end, robbing it of its intrinsic appeal.

“If they were aware of the purpose, they might see the affirmation as a means to an end, robbing it of its intrinsic appeal.”

People often affirm themselves on values remote from the threatening domain rather than directly relevant to it.

“People often affirm themselves on values remote from the threatening domain rather than directly relevant to it.”

The benefits of self-affirmation can be restored even when people are aware of its expected impact if they are given a choice about whether to affirm or not.

“However, the benefits of selfaffirmation can be restored even when people are aware of its expected impact if they are given a choice about whether to affirm or not (Silverman et al. 2012).”

• cites Silverman et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Writers lived longer if their autobiographies referred to a greater number of positive social roles.

“In one intriguing study, writers lived longer if their autobiographies referred to a greater number of positive social roles (e.g., mother, neighbor, colleague) (Pressman & Cohen 2007).”

• cites Pressman & Cohen 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Some of the effects of self-affirmation may arise from the protective effects of subjective connectedness.

“Some of the effects of self-affirmation may arise from the protective effects of subjective connectedness (Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Taylor 2007).”

• cites Cacioppo & Patrick 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Taylor 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Affirmation may be an invisible component of successful interventions and practices in a variety of disciplines.

“Affirmation may be an invisible component of successful interventions and practices in a variety of disciplines.”

In a variety of areas, indirect approaches to a behavioral or psychological problem seem to work as well as, and sometimes even better than, frontal assaults on it.

“In a variety of areas, in fact, indirect approaches to a behavioral or psychological problem seem to work as well as, and sometimes even better than, frontal assaults on it.”

Affirmation promotes adaptive processes that resemble the strategies of the resilient.

“Affirmation also promotes adaptive processes that resemble the strategies of the resilient.”

Acts that do not remedy a specific stressor may bolster people's sense of global adequacy and thus their well-being and resiliency.

“Though they do not remedy a specific stressor, these acts may bolster people's sense of global adequacy and thus their well-being and resiliency.”

Social ties may derive some of their benefit from self-affirmation processes.

“Social ties may derive some of their benefit from self-affirmation processes.”

When given a choice, people may construe the writing exercise not as a threatening act of control or stigmatization but rather as a tool to achieve agency over their well-being.

“When given a choice, people may construe the writing exercise not as a threatening act of control or stigmatization but rather as a tool to achieve agency over their well-being.”

People can find anchorage for self-integrity in domains beyond the threat.

“People can find anchorage for self-integrity in domains beyond the threat.”

The motive for self-integrity can be channeled into socially constructive behavior.

“Finally, the motive for self-integrity can be channeled into socially constructive behavior.”

Most people choose to affirm themselves in the domain of relationships.

“Most people choose to affirm themselves in the domain of relationships (e.g., Creswell et al. 2007).”

• cites Creswell et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The self draws its integrity from the social world.

“However, the self draws its integrity from the social world (Leary 2005).”

• cites Leary 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Interventions need not resolve a specific threat to remedy its effects.

“For this reason, interventions need not resolve a specific threat to remedy its effects.”

In motivational interviewing, counselors encourage clients to affirm their self-identified goals and values.

“In motivational interviewing, a clinical intervention to change health behavior, counselors encourage clients to affirm their self-identified goals and values (Ehret et al. 2014).”

• cites Ehret et al. 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The outcomes in self-affirmation research overlap with the outcomes in resiliency research-stress reactivity, information processing, and self-regulation.

“The outcomes in self-affirmation research overlap with the outcomes in resiliency research-stress reactivity, information processing, and self-regulation.”

The positive impact of volunteer work on adolescents' health and school achievement may arise from the chance it gives teenagers to craft an identity based on constructive social values.

“The positive impact of volunteer work on adolescents' health and school achievement may arise from the chance it gives teenagers to craft an identity based on constructive social values (Schreier et al. 2013; see also Allen & Philliber 2001, Wilson 2011).”

• cites Schreier et al. 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Allen & Philliber 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wilson 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Reference to a broader range of social roles in one's life story reflects a broader pool of affirmational resources to draw on in difficult times.

“From a self-affirmation perspective, reference to a broader range of social roles in one's life story reflects a broader pool of affirmational resources to draw on in difficult times.”

Social support benefits mental health because it provides opportunities to participate in pleasurable, value-laden activities and conversations.

“For example, social support benefits mental health not only because it helps people to manage stressors (Taylor 2007) but also because it provides opportunities to participate in pleasurable, value-laden activities and conversations, as when two music students talk about their favorite band (Lakey & Orehek 2011).”

• cites Taylor 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lakey & Orehek 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A threat derives its power from the challenge it poses to global self-integrity.

“As self-affirmation theory suggests, a threat derives its power from the challenge it poses to global self-integrity (Steele 1988).”

• cites Steele 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Research on self-affirmation and research on social ties can inform each other.

“Research on self-affirmation and research on social ties can inform each other.”

Activities that do not directly address a difficulty help to remedy it nonetheless.

“Although these activities do not directly address the difficulty, they help to remedy it nonetheless.”

Subtlety may be important to the effectiveness of affirmation.

“As with many interventions, subtlety may be important to the effectiveness of affirmation (Sherman et al. 2009; see also Robinson 2010, Yeager & Walton 2011).”

• cites Sherman et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Robinson 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yeager & Walton 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When participants are told that the affirmation is expected to benefit them, or simply led to see a connection between it and the outcome measure, its impact decreases.

“Indeed, when participants are told that the affirmation is expected to benefit them, or simply led to see a connection between it and the outcome measure, its impact decreases (Sherman et al. 2009, Silverman et al. 2012).”

• cites Sherman et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Silverman et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Effective well-being interventions have people participate in value-relevant activities such as practicing random acts of kindness.

“Effective well-being interventions have people participate in value-relevant activities such as practicing random acts of kindness (Lyubomirsky & Della Porta 2010).”

• cites Lyubomirsky & Della Porta 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Persistent can be fragile.

“Persistent can be fragile.”

At timely moments the processes can be redirected to prompt lasting adaptive change.

“At timely moments the processes can be redirected to prompt lasting adaptive change (Wilson 2011).”

• cites Wilson 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.