The DOI matches its Crossref record; 101 of the 101 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 91 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context
Open accessAbstract
This article considers the effects of psychosocial stress on child development and describes mechanisms through which early stress in the context of poverty affects the functioning of neural networks that underlie executive functions and self-regulation. It examines the effects of early experience on glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that influence neural activity in areas of the brain associated with executive functions, primarily as studied in animal models. Finally, it considers the strengths and limitations of this research, its relevance to understanding stress reactivity from the perspective of biological sensitivity to context, and the implications for the study of risk and resilience processes and early intervention to prevent developmental delays.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that early psychosocial stress, especially in poverty, can shape stress-response systems and prefrontal-limbic circuitry underlying executive function and self-regulation. It emphasizes that stress reactivity is not inherently harmful; outcomes depend on the quality of caregiving and context.
Key findings
- Animal models show that chronic prenatal or early neonatal stress increases stress reactivity and disrupts regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, with effects on limbic structures and prefrontal cortex areas important for executive functions and self-regulation.
- Glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels follow an inverted-U relationship with executive functions: moderate increases support executive function, while very high or very low levels are linked to deficits; this parallels the Yerkes-Dodson arousal-performance principle for complex tasks.
- Context determines whether high reactivity is beneficial or risky: supportive, resource-rich caregiving is associated with better-regulated stress physiology and reflective self-regulation, whereas low-support, unpredictable environments are associated with reactive behavior and poorer self-regulation.
- In a predominantly low-income longitudinal sample, infants whose mothers were highly sensitive had lower baseline cortisol and lower cortisol reactivity at 7 months, and reduced overall cortisol at 15 months; animal enrichment studies show behavioral and cognitive reversal of early stress effects, though not always matching neural changes.
Methods
- This is a conceptual review, not a new empirical study; it synthesizes animal-model and human research on stress, caregiving, poverty, brain development, and self-regulation.
- The main analysis is narrative integration of findings on HPA-axis function, glucocorticoid and catecholamine effects on prefrontal cortex, executive function, differential susceptibility, biological sensitivity to context, and early intervention.
- Human evidence discussed includes studies of children in poverty and a longitudinal low-income sample with cortisol measures at 7 and 15 months.
Limitations
- The author states that although animal models are compelling because of their specificity and control, the extent to which their neural and physiological mechanisms operate in human populations remains uncertain, and human development involves broader and more diverse influences.
- The author notes additional influences on neural plasticity beyond early care, including enriched-environment activity and genetic background, and calls for gene-environment and epigenetic research.
- Evident from the text: catecholamine–executive function relations in children have not been demonstrated because noninvasive assessment is difficult; whether chronic early stress affects children’s stress-response systems to the same degree as in animal models is not yet established.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
54 Not checked yet · 22 Own interpretation · 4 No basis given · 2 Sources not found
In the paper
“Studies have linked persistently elevated levels of physiological reactivity to stress with adverse physical and mental health outcomes across the lifespan (McEwen, 2000)”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McEwen, 2000 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In unpredictable environments in which resources are scarce or social conflict is high, more reactive and less reflective patterns of cognition and behavior are likely to be adaptive and to result in short-term benefits if not longer term health and self-regulation benefits.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“It is prominent among the several mediating mechanisms through which risk for poor physical and mental health increases in inverse relation to socioeconomic status (SES; Adler et al., 1994).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Adler et al., 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“a number of studies have definitively linked income poverty and low SES to children’s health and development (McLeod & Shanahan, 1993; McLoyd, 1998).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McLeod & Shanahan, 1993
- Not checked yetcites McLoyd, 1998 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Until recently, however, the field has lacked in-depth examination of stress as an aspect of the link between poverty and child development (Evans, 2003).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans, 2003 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies have indicated specific contexts, more prevalent in low-income homes, that are more stressful for infants and young, such as nonoptimal attachment relationships with primary caregivers (de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998; Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996) and maternal unavailability (Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003; Haley & Stansbury, 2003).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, high reactive children in less supportive rearing circumstances are more likely to exhibit high glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that are not well regulated and therefore not conducive to long-term potentiation and to EF and self-regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This is because higher levels of social support are associated with faster glucocorticoid (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004) and presumably catecholamine recovery from stress.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In an increasing number of studies examining the differential susceptibility theory, infants and young children characterized by high levels of behavioral reactivity and negative emotionality are particularly likely to exhibit optimal regulation of behavior in high-quality environments but unfavorable outcomes in low-quality environments (Blair, 2002; Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998; van den Boom, 19”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“research in animal models suggests that one mechanism of this effect of poverty on child development is through structural effects of early stress on brain development in key areas important for EFs and stress regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 2
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Animal models have demonstrated that chronic stress in the prenatal and/or very early neonatal periods (demonstrated through manipulations that directly increase the physiological response to stress) leads to increased stress reactivity and to poor regulation of stress reactivity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis component of the stress response system”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Animal models of early experience
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In high-risk environments, however, higher reactivity is likely to occur without support for the regulation of reactivity and to lead to poor developmental outcomes.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“High reactivity to stress on its own does not confer risk and may even enhance development in supportive contexts (Boyce & Ellis, 2005).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boyce & Ellis, 2005 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several studies have demonstrated that economic adversity is associated with disruptions in parenting behaviors and that psychological distress in parents is linked to poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children (Brody & Flor, 1998; Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brody & Flor, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, of the two types of glucocorticoid receptors in the brain, glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR), GRs are less sensitive to glucocorticoids than MRs and therefore remain largely unoccupied at low levels of stress arousal. However, with increasing stress and moderate glucocorticoid increase, GR occupation increases, supporting synaptic long-term potentiation. Increases in glucoc”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Kloet, Oitzl, & Joels, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Erickson, Drevets, & Schulkin, 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although similar relations likely exist between catecholamine levels and EFs in children, no studies to date have demonstrated these relations because of the difficulty of noninvasively assessing catecholamine levels.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In supportive contexts, this stimulation results in the development of physiology that is conducive to reflective self-regulation, whereas in unsupportive, less predictable contexts, it leads to the development of physiology that is conducive to high behavioral reactivity and low reflective self-regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, moderate increases in norepinephrine (NE), a primary neuromodulator associated with the sympathetic-adrenal system, result in increased occupation of a specific type of adrenoceptor that has a high affinity for NE and is predominantly located in PFC and associated with EF (Ramos & Arnsten, 2007). At increases beyond a moderate level, however, this type of receptor becomes saturated”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ramos & Arnsten, 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Research in animal models indicates that early experience programs the development of stress response systems to make them more or less sensitive to stress hormones, with implications for the structure and function of brain areas important for the self-regulation of cognition and behavior (Meaney, 2001).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meaney, 2001 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“increased allostatic load is apparent in response to chronic environmental stressors in children living in poverty and similarly related to health outcomes (Evans & Kim, 2007).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans & Kim, 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although children in both contexts are stress reactive, those in more supportive contexts are more likely to exhibit efficient regulation of stress reactivity.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In these models, targeted disruptions of PFC corticolimbic connectivity through lesion, transient inactivation, and pharmacological manipulation as well as stress induction procedures result in lower performance on tasks requiring EFs (Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007; Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt, & Robbins, 1998; Floresco, Seamans, & Phillips, 1997; Goldstein, Rasmusson, Bun”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Animal models of early experience
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007 source
- Not checked yetcites Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt, & Robbins, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Floresco, Seamans, & Phillips, 1997
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the Yerkes-Dodson principle, arousal at moderate levels increases performance on complex tasks but at very high or very low levels impairs performance.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yerkes & Dodson, 1908 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“research in behavioral neuroscience has demonstrated that extended maternal separation and low levels of maternal specific maternal behaviors in rats are associated with problems with stress regulation and adverse cognitive and behavioral outcomes in offspring (Meaney, 2001).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meaney, 2001 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, brief maternal separation/handling of rat pups increases levels of maternal behaviors, notably licking and grooming upon reunion, that promote gene expression associated with the density of GR receptors in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical env”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low-quality early caregiving is highly likely to serve as a primary source of stress for children or as a mediator of environmental stressors, with stressful social and physical conditions of the home leading to stress on parents and to low-quality early care.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In this way, levels of NE act to influence the neural response to stimulation, promoting neural activity in PFC associated with reflective and reasoned responses to stimulation at moderate levels of arousal, whereas at high levels, NE reduces neural activity in PFC and increases neural activity in brain areas associated with reactive, automatized responses to stimulation (Arnsten, 2000).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arnsten, 2000 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The provision of competent caregiving in early compensatory care and education would be expected, in theory, to have effects on developing self-regulation in children experiencing high levels of disrupted caregiving that are in part mediated through stress reactivity and PFC functioning.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Implications for early intervention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, early life stress, which is more frequent in the context of poverty, would attenuate developing self-regulation in children characterized by high reactivity and begin to shape developmental trajectories toward nonoptimal outcomes.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Early life stress is more frequent in poverty.
In the paper
“Similarly, Bredy, Humpartzoomian, Cain, and Meaney (2003) demonstrated that the effects of low maternal caregiving competence on hippocampally dependent learning and memory could be reversed at the behavioral level through environmental enrichment but that the physiological function of the hippocampus was not altered in expected ways.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Implications for early intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bredy, Humpartzoomian, Cain, and Meaney, 2003
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reactivity is more likely in high-quality care to promote aspects of cognition and behavior important for reflective self-regulation but in low-quality care to promote reactive responses to stimulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although evidence from animal models is compelling because of its specificity and high level of control, the extent to which neural and physiological mechanisms relating stress, early caregiving, and developmental outcomes might be at work in human populations remains open to question.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, early compensatory education and care interventions to promote learning and increase the regulation of reactivity through various activities with caring and supportive others in a predictable, stimulating environment would be expected to promote competencies such as EF and self-control that are important contributors to ongoing success in life.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chronic early rearing stress affects the activity of stress response systems with consequences for the regulation of cognition and behavior.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increasing numbers of studies in human populations indicate that single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with glucocorticoid and catecholamine activity in PFC corticolimbic circuitry are related to variation in EF and perhaps, to some extent, susceptibility to early stress effects on cognition (Hariri, Drabant, & Weinberger, 2006; Pezawas et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2007).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
“Relations among early experience, PFC connectivity, and EFs demonstrated in animal models are important for child development research in that EFs describe information processing abilities that allow for actively maintaining and processing task-relevant information in working memory”
“Although early rearing environments for children differ in many ways from those of rats, the caregiving environment for children facing low SES is more likely than typical home environments to be disorganized and lacking in appropriate stimulation and support”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early life stress is more frequent in poverty.
“early life stress, which is more frequent in the context of poverty”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In supportive and structured environments, however, regulation of stress hormones would occur and facilitate reflective and flexible forms of behavior and cognition, such as executive functions (Blair, 2010).”
From Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood (2011) · cites this paper as Blair, 2010
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
“(Panksepp, Burgdorf, Turner, & Gordon, 2002; van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 2000)”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > References
“74. Panksepp J Burgdorf J Turner C Gordon N Modeling ADHD-type arousal with unilateral frontal cortex damage in rats and beneficial effects of play therapy Brain and Cognition 2003 52 97 105”
Citations
Cites
Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., McClay, J., Mill, J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A., et al. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1083968 · Cited by 8,120 · cited 2×
“Examples of gene– environment interaction in the study of stress and development (Caspi et al., 2003) have also made clear that research incorporating information on genetic background can lead to a more specific understanding of the mechanisms through which the stress response and early care are…”
BackgroundThe relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908) · Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology · doi:10.1002/cne.920180503 · Cited by 6,911
Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior
Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., Dymov, S., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2004) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1276 · Cited by 6,177 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundDickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355 · Cited by 5,881 · cited 1×
“This is because higher levels of social support are associated with faster glucocorticoid (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004) and presumably catecholamine recovery from stress.”
BackgroundSocioeconomic disadvantage and child development
McLoyd, V. C. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.2.185 · Cited by 3,763 · cited 3×
“…of Applied Psychology, New York University, 246 Greene Street, Kimball Hall, 8th floor, New York, NY 10003; e-mail: eclancy.blair@nyu.edu. ª 2010 The Author Child Development Perspectives ª 2010 The Society for Research in Child Development Volume 4, Number 3 Shanahan, 1993; McLoyd, 1998).”
BackgroundSkill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children
Heckman, J. J. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1128898 · Cited by 3,559 · cited 1×
“In the evaluation of model early intervention programs, there is an increasing recognition of the importance of personality and social competence factors associated with self-control and on aspects of cognition, such as EFs, that are distinct from general intelligence (Heckman, 2006, 2007).”
BackgroundThe concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00024-7 · Cited by 3,302 · cited 1×
“…CONTEXT OF POVERTY In humans, primarily in research with adults, chronically stressful environments result in sustained demands on stress response systems that are ultimately pathogenic in a variety of disease states, a phenomenon known as allostatic load (McEwen, 2000; McEwen & Wingfield, 2003).”
BackgroundLiu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., Sharma, S., Pearson, D., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5332.1659 · Cited by 3,170 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundExecutive functions and developmental psychopathology.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x · Cited by 3,150 · cited 1×
“…social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental disorders and psychopathologies in children (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Zelazo & Müller, 2002).”
BackgroundBlair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x · Cited by 3,140 · cited 1×
“In humans, Child Development Perspectives, Vo EFs have been related to multiple aspects of developing social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 386
Schibli, K., Wong, K., Hedayati, N., & D’Angiulli, A. (2017) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13369 · Cited by 56
The role of families and pre-school in educational disadvantage
Sylva, Κ. (2014) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/03054985.2014.979581 · Cited by 42
“The neuroscience literature is far too complex to be dealt with here but a recent review by Blair (2010) highlights the importance of ‘soft skills’ that may constitute a causal link between poverty and cognitive performance.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Regulation of Task Performance: A Trans-Disciplinary Review
Clark, I., & Dumas, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01862 · Cited by 46
“Environmental stress plays a key role in PFC development and functioning; as Blair (2010) notes, environmental stress may “impede the development of reflective and goal-directed self-regulation of behavior such as that needed for success in schools.””
BackgroundPost-migration risks, developmental processes, and learning among Syrian refugee children in Lebanon
Kim, H. Y., Brown, L. E., Dolan, C. T., Sheridan, M. A., & Aber, J. L. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101142 · Cited by 46
Associations Between Toddler-Age Communication and Kindergarten-Age Self-Regulatory Skills
Aro, T. I., Laakso, M., Määttä, S., Tolvanen, A. J., & Poikkeus, A. (2014) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2014_jslhr-l-12-0411 · Cited by 51
Disentangling the Influence of Socioeconomic Risks on Children's Early Self‐Control
Ng‐Knight, T., & Schoon, I. (2016) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12288 · Cited by 41
“Given the allostatic stress mechanisms that are supposed to underlie socioeconomic disadvantage (Blair, 2010; Evans & Schamberg, 2009), it is important to test whether indicators of subjective psychological strain often experienced by socioeconomically disadvantaged families can be empirically differentiated from obje…”
BackgroundMapping of Executive Functions / Cartografía de las Funciones Ejecutivas
Santa-Cruz, C., & Rosas, R. (2017) · Studies in Psychology Estudios de Psicología · doi:10.1080/02109395.2017.1311459 · Cited by 47
“Research has shown that stress, lack of access to cultural opportunities and low educational quality, all factors associated with poverty, are elements that alter the optimal development of this portion of the brain (Blair, 2010b; Blair, Granger, & Razza, 2005; Blair et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialExamining the Associations of Trait Self-control with Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-being
Li, Q., Xiang, G., Song, S., Huang, X., & Chen, H. (2021) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-021-00418-w · Cited by 39
Trauma, Self-Regulation, and Learning
Panlilio, C. C., Ferrara, A. M., & MacNeill, L. A. (2019) · Child maltreatment solutions network · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-12811-1_4 · Cited by 44
Zeytinoglu, S., Calkins, S. D., & Leerkes, E. M. (2018) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025418757706 · Cited by 43
“By responding to children’s emotions and needs in a timely and warm manner, emotionally supportive caregivers likely externally regulate the intensity of children’s physiological arousal and emotions (Calkins, 2011; Calkins & Leerkes, 2011; Kopp, 1982; Sroufe, 1996), allowing them to sustain moderate levels of arousal…”
BackgroundInfluentialWass, S. V., Smith, C. G., Daubney, K., Suata, Z. M., Clackson, K., Begum, A., & Mirza, F. U. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13084 · Cited by 39
“…well-replicated finding within psychology and psychiatry is that early exposure to stressful environments increases the risk of adverse long-term outcomes, including mental disorder (Businelle et al., 2013; Felitti et al., 1998) and cognitive impairment (Blair, 2010; Evans & Schamberg, 2009).”
BackgroundPoverty and Gender Inequality in Developing Countries
Dormekpor, E. (2015) · Journals & Books Hosting (International Knowledge Sharing Platform) · Cited by 36
Family Context and Psychopathology
Morris, A. S., Houltberg, B. J., Criss, M. M., & Bosler, C. D. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118554470.ch18 · Cited by 36
Layte, R. (2017) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcx054 · Cited by 35
Exposure to collective gender-based violence causes intimate partner violence
Stojetz, W., & Brück, T. (2023) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103054 · Cited by 40
A developmental model of emotional eating
Chawner, L. R., & Filippetti, M. L. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101133 · Cited by 45
Wagner, B., Latimer, J., Adams, E., Olson, H. C., Symons, M., Mazzucchelli, T. G., Jirikowic, T., Watkins, R. E., CROSS, D. S., Carapetis, J. R., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0234895 · Cited by 35
“Children’s exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), including stress and poverty, can also impair executive functioning and self-regulation development [22].”
BackgroundIncome, Family Context, and Self-Regulation in 5-Year-Old Children
Li, M., Riis, J. L., Ghazarian, S. R., & Johnson, S. B. (2017) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000380 · Cited by 40
“These findings support the hypothesis that early-life chronic stress influences neurodevelopmental processes underlying SR functions.(37) Previously, Evans et al.”
The Effects of Noise on Children’s Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review
Gheller, F., Spicciarelli, G., Scimemi, P., & Arfé, B. (2023) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00139165241245823 · Cited by 48
“Moreover, background noise can affect EFs concurrently and directly by diverting attentional resources or causing cognitive overload (Pichora-Fuller et al., 2016; Wetzel et al., 2021) and also indirectly by inducing distress, influencing EF development (Stansfeld & Clark, 2015; Blair, 2010).”
‘Be good, know the rules’: Children’s perspectives on starting school and self-regulation
Booth, A., O’Farrelly, C., Hennessy, E., & Doyle, O. (2019) · Childhood · doi:10.1177/0907568219840397 · Cited by 39
“Growing up in poverty places children at increased risk of experiencing disrupted social relationships as well as exposure to chaotic and stressful environments that contribute to a reduced capacity to self-regulate (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundSleep Moderates the Association Between Response Inhibition and Self-Regulation in Early Childhood
Schumacher, A. M., Miller, A. L., Watamura, S. E., Kurth, S., Lassonde, J. M., & LeBourgeois, M. K. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1204921 · Cited by 41
“Furthermore, a growing literature shows that interactions among these different stress-response systems together shape child functioning and that patterns of intersystem connection are influenced by environmental variables such as SES (Blair, 2010; Quas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundEffortful Control Development in the Face of Harshness and Unpredictability
Warren, S. M., & Barnett, M. A. (2020) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-019-09360-6 · Cited by 32
Growth in Adolescent Self-Regulation and Impact on Sexual Risk-Taking: A Curve-of-Factors Analysis
Crandall, A., Magnusson, B. M., & Novilla, M. L. B. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0706-4 · Cited by 43
Foy, J. G. (2014) · International Education Research · doi:10.12735/ier.v2i2p19 · Cited by 34
“Economic disadvantage may be associated with specific stressors of poverty that may exert influences on cognition (Blair, 2010; Evans & Schamberg, 2009).”
BackgroundPeer victimization and cortisol production in children and adolescents: A systematic review
Kliewer, W. L., Sosnowski, D. W., Noh, H., McGuire, K., & Wright, A. W. (2019) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/jabr.12172 · Cited by 29
Shubert, J., Wray‐Lake, L., & McKay, B. (2020) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12575 · Cited by 33
The development of theory of mind: predictors and moderators of improvement in kindergarten
Brock, L. L., Kim, H., Gutshall, C. C., & Grissmer, D. W. (2018) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2017.1423481 · Cited by 28
“Other work indicates that children from high-poverty samples are less proficient in EF than children from higher SES families (Raver, Blair, & Willoughby, 2013), perhaps because the psychological stress of chronic poverty impairs cognitive functioning (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundJohnson, A. E., Perry, N. B., Hostinar, C. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21849 · Cited by 34
“Indeed, youth who experienced early deprivation tend to show deficits in self-regulatory behavior (e.g., Blair, 2010; Evans & Kim, 2013), changes in neural structure, connectivity, and functioning in prefrontal and limbic regions associated with self-regulation (e.g., Teicher et al., 2003;…”
BackgroundMerz, E. C., Landry, S. H., Johnson, U., Williams, J. M., & Jung, K. (2015) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.10.003 · Cited by 33
“From a neurobiological perspective, caregiver responsiveness is also thought to facilitate regulation of the child’s emotions and stress-response systems (Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007), enabling development of the prefrontal networks underlying EF (Blair, 2010; Blair et al., 2011; Loman & Gunnar, 2010; McEwen & Gianaros, 20…”
BackgroundCaughy, M. O., Mills, B. A., Brinkley, D. Y., & Owen, M. T. (2018) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12242 · Cited by 28
“Neighborhood conditions that increase stress may affect self-regulation development through their impact on glucocortocoid production and the effect of these hormones on the development of brain regions associated with executive functions fundamental to self-regulation (Blair, 2010; McCoy, 2013).”
Binns, A. V., Hutchinson, L. R., & Cardy, J. O. (2018) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2018.12.005 · Cited by 30
Early Childhood Self-Regulation in Context: Parental and Familial Environmental Influences
Kiss, M., Fechete, G. L., Pop, M., & Susa, G. (2014) · Cognitie, Creier, Comportament · Cited by 25
Lengua, L. J., Thompson, S. F., Moran, L. R., Zalewski, M., Ruberry, E. J., Klein, M. R., & Kiff, C. J. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419000373 · Cited by 25
“In children, self-regulation has been defined as biobehavioral systems that enable control of attention and emotional arousal (Blair, 2010) composed of behavioral, cognitive, and physiological components that are reciprocally integrated, including top-down (executive and other cognitive) and bottom-up (stress and emot…”
BackgroundGündüz, G., Yağmurlu, B., & Harma, M. (2014) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2015.985148 · Cited by 30
“Changes in stress response systems may affect brain functions in areas of prefrontal cortex that facilitate or impede the development of efficient and goal-directed modulation of behavior (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundHubert, B., Guimard, P., Florin, A., & Tracy, A. (2015) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2015.1037624 · Cited by 33
“Compared to their more advantaged peers, children growing up in disadvantaged households may be experiencing more stress, which is negatively related to their self-regulation skills (Blair, 2010; Blair & Ursache, 2011; Wanless, McClelland, Tominey, & Acock, 2011).”
BackgroundOberth, C., Goulter, N., & McMahon, R. J. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579420002254 · Cited by 28
Measuring parents' regulatory media use for themselves and their children
Suh, B., Kirkorian, H. L., Barr, R., Kucker, S. C., Torres, C., & Radesky, J. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Developmental Psychology · doi:10.3389/fdpys.2024.1377998 · Cited by 29
Development of Self-Regulation in Context
Heikamp, T., Trommsdorff, G., & Fäsche, A. (2013) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110284461.193 · Cited by 27
“In a similar vein, Blair (2010) suggested that very low and very high levels of cortisol can adversely affect the development of selfregulation, whereas moderately high levels of cortisol are positively associated with the development of self-regulation skills (see also Blair and McKinnon, this…”
BackgroundLawler, J. M., Esposito, E. A., Doyle, C., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579418001190 · Cited by 31
Panlilio, C. C., Dube, S. R., & Corr, C. P. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106176 · Cited by 25
First do no harm: How teachers support or undermine children's self-regulation
Phillips, D. A., Hutchison, J. E., Martin, A. C., Castle, S. L., & Johnson, A. D. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.12.001 · Cited by 37
Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Waters, N. E., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xd5jy · Cited by 27
Noroña-Zhou, A. N., & Tung, I. (2020) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21877 · Cited by 35
An autonomic nervous system context of harsh parenting and youth aggression versus delinquency
Huffman, L. G., Oshri, A., & Caughy, M. O. (2020) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.107966 · Cited by 24
“How children respond to adverse rearing environments is significantly influenced by their ability to self-regulate (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundMultiple child care arrangements and school readiness in kindergarten
Pilarz, A. R. (2017) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.09.004 · Cited by 23
LOW‐INCOME, MINORITY FATHERS’ CONTROL STRATEGIES AND THEIR CHILDREN'S REGULATORY SKILLS
Malin, J. L., Cabrera, N., Karberg, E., Aldoney, D., & Rowe, M. L. (2014) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21467 · Cited by 27
“Self-regulation enables children to voluntarily control their attention and emotional arousal to meet a desire goal (Blair, 2010; Blair & Ursache, 2011).”
BackgroundThe role of inflammation in the association between poverty and working memory in childhood
Kokosi, T., Flouri, E., & Midouhas, E. (2020) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.105040 · Cited by 21
“There is also much evidence that several complex mechanisms underlie the link between SES and EF in children (Blair, 2010; Evans & Schamberg, 2009).”
BackgroundMennis, J. L., McKeon, T. P., Coatsworth, J. D., Russell, M. A., Coffman, D. L., & Mason, M. J. (2021) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102728 · Cited by 17
Cognitive Development and Culture
Gauvain, M., & Perez, S. M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy220 · Cited by 23
The biological side of social determinants: Neural costs of childhood poverty
Lipina, S. J. (2016) · Prospects · doi:10.1007/s11125-017-9390-0 · Cited by 25
Hao, Y., Yao, L., Smith, D. M., Sorel, E., Anderson, A. K., Schumacher, E. H., & Evans, G. W. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-44624-2 · Cited by 18
Child Adjustment During COVID-19: The Role of Economic Hardship, Caregiver Stress, and Pandemic Play
Thibodeau‐Nielsen, R. B., Palermo, F., White, R. E., Dooley, A. W., & Dier, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.716651 · Cited by 22
“Importantly, the manner in which children respond to stressors, particularly long-lasting and unpredictable stressors like those elicited by a global pandemic, may have important implications for self-regulation development (Blair, 2010; Thompson, 2014).”
BackgroundSupporting children's self-regulation development in play-based kindergarten classrooms
Pyle, A., Danniels, E., Larsen, N. E., & Martinussen, R. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2022.102059 · Cited by 40
Tsai, N., Jaeggi, S. M., Eccles, J. S., Atherton, O. E., & Robins, R. W. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01838 · Cited by 21
“These findings underscore the link between early stress exposure to later diminished executive function abilities (Gunnar et al., 2009; Blair, 2010; Ursache et al., 2013), but whether these relationships together explain anxiety outcomes remains unclear.”
BackgroundZeiders, K. H., Causadías, J. M., & White, R. M. B. (2017) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.09.020 · Cited by 22
“(slow decline in cortisol from wakeup to bedtime) have been linked to poor emotional and physical health outcomes [3]; steeper cortisol slopes have been linked to positive health [4].”
BackgroundRungsattatharm, L., Tasingha, P., Trairatvorakul, P., & Chonchaiya, W. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-025-00875-8 · Cited by 40
“Moreover, the quality of the early child rearing environment has been identified as a positive determinant of the development of EF and well-regulated behaviors later in life [27, 36, 50].”
Menon, M., Katz, R. C., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-020-01759-5 · Cited by 24
Kara, B., & Selçuk, B. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01270-y · Cited by 23
Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood
Gauvain, M. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108955676 · Cited by 24
What's the matter with ACEs? Recommendations for considering early adversity in educational contexts
Compton, A. B., Panlilio, C. C., & Humphreys, K. L. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106073 · Cited by 26
“This response may give rise to problems with increased stress reactivity (Blair, 2010; Blair and Ursache, 2011), selection of appropriate learning-related and/or emotion regulation-related strategies (Jones Harden et al., 2016), metacognitive monitoring of strategy effectiveness toward goal…”
BackgroundCook, C. J., Howard, S. J., Cuartas, J. A., Makaula, H., Merkley, R., Mshudulu, M., Tshetu, N., Scerif, G., & Draper, C. E. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105944 · Cited by 19
Socioeconomic Status Index to Interpret Inequalities in Child Development.
Doulabi, M. A., Sajedi, F., Vameghi, R., Mazaheri, M. A., & Baghban, A. R. A. (2017) · Iranian journal of child neurology. · doi:10.22037/ijcn.v11i2.11688 · Cited by 19
Thinking Developmentally: The Next Evolution in Models of Health
Garner, A. S. (2016) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000326 · Cited by 21
Relational Resilience in Girls
Jordan, J. V. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-14728-9_4 · Cited by 22
The Role of Self-Regulation in Academic and Behavioral Paths to a High School Diploma
Cambron, C., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Guttmannova, K., Herrenkohl, T. I., Hemphill, S. A., & Hawkins, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology · doi:10.1007/s40865-017-0066-5 · Cited by 20
“The stresses of poverty are thought to exhibit structural effects on brain development that diminish executive functions and condition stress reactivity responses that inhibit the application of self-regulation (Blair 2010).”
BackgroundMeasurement of Self-regulation in Preschool and Elementary Children: A Scoping Review
Philpott‐Robinson, K., Johnson, T., Evans, L., Wales, K., Leonard, C., & Lane, A. E. (2023) · Physical & Occupational Therapy In Pediatrics · doi:10.1080/01942638.2022.2158055 · Cited by 24
“Ongoing exposure to adverse events in childhood can alter the physiological stress response in children, and by extension self-regulation (Blair, 2010; Blair et al., 2011; Blair & Raver, 2012; Raver et al., 2013).”
BackgroundEncinger, A. J., Kutaka, T. S., Chernyavskiy, P., Acar, İ. H., & Raikes, H. H. (2020) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2020.1749492 · Cited by 23
“This can, in turn, lead to lower levels of children ’ s self-control abilities, including delaying gratification, inhibitory control, and attention (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; Choe et al., 2013).”
BackgroundParental socioeconomic position and midlife allostatic load: a study of potential mediators
Christensen, D. S., Flensborg‐Madsen, T., Garde, E., Hansen, Å. M., Pedersen, J. M., & Mortensen, E. L. (2018) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5956-x · Cited by 21
Acar, İ. H., Torquati, J., Raikes, H. H., & Rudasill, K. M. (2020) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2020.1830465 · Cited by 24
“For example, lower quality parent–child interaction due to poverty (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012) or lack of cognitively stimulating materials in home (e.g., books) (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002) may impair development of children’s self-regulation.”
BackgroundHatfield, B. E., Finders, J. K., Zandbergen, D. L., & Lewis, H. (2021) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2021.1961198 · Cited by 17
“Overall, self-regulation is multifaceted, influenced by genetics, emotional and physiological reactions including activity in the SRS, and cognitive processes such as executive functions (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundHennessey, E. P., Kepinska, O., Haft, S. L., Chan, M., Sunshine, I., Jones, C. L., Hancock, R., & Hoeft, F. (2020) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.107946 · Cited by 23
“In accordance with this research, studies on cortisol levels in young children have shown similar patterns, with moderate, acute increases in cortisol being associated with better performance on EF measures (Blair, Granger, & Razza, 2005; Blair, 2010; Davis, Bruce, & Gunnar, 2002).”
ResultPerry, R. E., Braren, S. H., Opendak, M. M., Brandes-Aitken, A. N., Chopra, D., Woo, J., Sullivan, R. M., Blair, C., & Family Life Project Key Investigators (2020) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579420001455 · Cited by 17
“Children raised in poverty are at increased risk for altered health and developmental outcomes (Blair & Raver, 2016; Duncan, Ziol-Guest, & Kalil, 2010; Hackman & Farah, 2009; Lipina & Posner, 2012; Yoshikawa, Aber, & Beardslee, 2012), with altered stress physiology increasingly recognized as a likely, primary mechanis…”
BackgroundSelf-citationVasseleu, E., Neilsen‐Hewett, C., Ehrich, J. F., Cliff, K., & Howard, S. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.621320 · Cited by 18
Lengua, L. J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199769100.013.0028 · Cited by 16
Zhang, Y., Cannata, S., Razza, R. A., & Liu, Q. (2023) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-023-00636-1 · Cited by 21
“…relationships could compromise children’s sense of stability and safety, which are the premises for children to appropriately deploy attention and regulate emotions that are also daily practices, necessary for the normal development of self-regulation (Blair, 2010 ; Davies & Cummings, 1994).”
Lee, S., Bernstein, R., Ip, K. I., & Olson, S. L. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422001043 · Cited by 16
“Moreover, age 6 is a critical time for adjustment as children enter primary school, which involves more structured environments and a widening range of social interactions (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundPandey, A., Hale, D. R., Goddings, A., Blakemore, S., & Viner, R. (2017) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0570-z · Cited by 16
“Self-regulation is considered to be a malleable skill which can be shaped by environment, thus making it an important target for interventions [13, 14].”
BackgroundJiang, S., & Dong, L. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520948152 · Cited by 19
“…studies, which have indicated that poverty negatively influences the development of self-control or self-regulation skills during childhood (Blair, 2010; Evans & Kim, 2013; Wickrama et al., 2017); moreover, a lower level of self-control is associated with a higher level of aggressive…”
BackgroundResultDifferential Growth Trajectories for Achievement among Children Retained in First Grade
Chen, Q., Hughes, J. N., & Kwok, O. (2014) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/674054 · Cited by 16
“The effects of poverty on the development of emerging self-regulation, effects that are both mediated and moderated by disrupted parent-child interactions and low stimulation, are well established (Blair, 2010).”
InfluentialPhillips, J. M., & Longoria, J. N. (2019) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2019.1682131 · Cited by 12
“variables known to hinder executive functioning skills including stress (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2016), depressed mood (Mitchell & Phillips, 2007; Synder, 2013), poor sleep (Kuula et al.”
BackgroundBraren, S. H., Perry, R. E., Ursache, A., & Blair, C. (2019) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21832 · Cited by 16
“Exposure to early life stress, such as that associated with socioeconomic adversity, can affect the child’s stress response system, shaping developmental trajectories and impacting laterlife health outcomes (Blair, 2010; Shonkoff, Boyce, & McEwen, 2009; Lupien, King, Meaney, & McEwen, 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationChildren’s Microsystems and Their Relationship to Stress and Executive Functioning
Campos-Gil, J. A., Ortega‐Andeane, P., & Chanes, D. V. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00996 · Cited by 25
“…in children (Estrada, 2007); also lack of concentration affects not only academic performance but also the development of adequate emotional regulation (Maxwell and Evans, 2000; Zimmerman, 2005; Blair, 2010) and makes it impossible to attend to the content of the classes (Evans and Lepore, 1993).”
BackgroundUrfer, A., Turpin, H., Dimitrova, N., Borghini, A., Plessen, K. J., Harari, M. M., & Urben, S. (2021) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9010009 · Cited by 14
“In particular, it has been recognized that preterm-born children are more at risk of presenting maladaptive self-regulation skills including stress response system regulation such as the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis [10], as well as the development of behavioral (or externalizing) and emotional (or interna…”
BackgroundFrost, A., Jelinek, C., Bernard, K., Lind, T., & Dozier, M. (2017) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12573 · Cited by 13
Partial agreement between task and BRIEF‐P‐based EF measures depends on school socioeconomic status
Nin, V., Delgado, H., Terrera, G. M., & Carboni, A. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13241 · Cited by 17
The Role of Preschool Dosage and Quality in Children’s Self-Regulation Development
Melo, C., Pianta, R. C., LoCasale‐Crouch, J., Romo, F., & Ayala, M. C. (2022) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-022-01399-y · Cited by 19
“Children’s development of self-regulation is susceptible to toxic stress exposure, which is characteristic of poverty–living conditions due to economic hardship, food insecurity, unpredictability, and other daily hassles (Blair, 2010; Hamoudi et al., 2015).”
Yang, Q., & Yu, T. (2024) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-05576-z · Cited by 19
“Therefore, individuals learn a series of life skills and decision-making ability during childhood and adulthood to enhance their psychological resilience [117].”
Time spent playing predicts early reading and math skills through associations with self-regulation
Miller, P. L., Betancur, L., Coulanges, L., Kammerzell, J., Libertus, M. E., Bachman, H. J., & Votruba‐Drzal, E. (2022) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101470 · Cited by 20
Poor school performance is associated with a larger gain in body mass index during puberty
Kark, M., Hjern, A., & Rasmussen, F. E. (2013) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/apa.12471 · Cited by 13
“There is also some evidence that suboptimal self-regulatory skills predict development of obesity in preschool age (12) and that chronic stress in childhood can diminish children’s self-regulatory capacity (13).”
BackgroundChaku, N., Hoyt, L. T., & Barry, K. R. (2021) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101119 · Cited by 14
Mance, G. A., Grant, K. E., Roberts, D. D., Carter, J., Turek, C., Adam, E. K., & Thorpe, R. J. (2019) · Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community · doi:10.1080/10852352.2019.1617386 · Cited by 19
“For example, broad systemic stressors (e.g., poverty) may increase more proximal stressful experiences (e.g., parent and adolescent major events and daily hassles), which in turn may affect executive processing skills that govern adaptive responses to novel or complex situations (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialHosokawa, R., & Katsura, T. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17155491 · Cited by 18
“the self-regulatory processes that allow children to cope with external demands [73,74].”
BackgroundAltenburger, L. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.785376 · Cited by 12
“In contrast, low-quality parenting can induce stress and overwhelm the young child’s emerging self-regulation system (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundHong, F., Doan, S. N., Lopez, A., & Evans, G. W. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01925 · Cited by 18
“…social competence, academic success, and mental and physical health (e.g., Shoda et al., 1990; Kochanska et al., 2000; Calkins and Fox, 2002; Kochanska and Knaack, 2003; Baumeister and Vohs, 2004; Blair and Razza, 2007; Blair, 2010; Vohs and Baumeister, 2011; Mischel, 2014; Blair and Raver, 2015).”
BackgroundMishra, R., Singh, R. P., & Jaikumar, S. (2021) · Journal of Global Marketing · doi:10.1080/08911762.2021.1926035 · Cited by 12
“It also witnesses malnourished children growing up under stress (Blair, 2010), around a less stimulating environment, often with mentally disturbed single parents (Guo & Harris, 2000; Petterson & Albers, 2001).”
BackgroundVitiello, V. E., Nguyen, T., Ruzek, E. A., Pianta, R. C., & Whittaker, J. V. (2022) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101396 · Cited by 12
Rising Child Poverty in Europe: Mitigating the Scarring from the COVID-19 Pandemic
Hallaert, J.-J., Vassileva, I., & Chen, T. (2023) · IMF Working Paper · doi:10.5089/9798400244896.001 · Cited by 13
Harker, A., Cordoba, N., Moya, A., & Piñeros-Leaño, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134094 · Cited by 13
“…during early childhood, coupled with deficits in nurturing relationships, can trigger toxic stress, affect children’s mental health and social and emotional learning (Shonkoff and Phillips, 2000; Felitti, 2002; Walker et al., 2007; Evans and Schamberg, 2009; Blair, 2010; Molano et al., 2018).”
BackgroundExecutive Functioning and Health
Williams, P., Tinajero, R., & Suchy, Y. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935291.013.75 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Blair, C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blair, Clancy
- ORCID
- Blair, Clancy
- Venue
- Child Development Perspectives
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-11-15
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 181-188
- ISSN
- 1750-8592 (ISSN-L)
- 1750-8606
- PMC
- PMC3138186
- OpenAlex
- W1509600221
- Semantic Scholar
- e8bd68422006a96ca29c5f492938e1cb862229bd
- Cited by
- 379
- References
- 101
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 6.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Child Development Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P01HD039667, R03HD039750, R01HD051502)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- psychosocial stress, child development, self-regulation, executive function, poverty, glucocorticoids, catecholamines, artificial neural networks, stress reactivity, risk and resilience, developmental delay prevention, early intervention
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