The DOI matches its Crossref record; 101 of the 101 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 91 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context
Open accessAbstract
This article considers the effects of psychosocial stress on child development and describes mechanisms through which early stress in the context of poverty affects the functioning of neural networks that underlie executive functions and self-regulation. It examines the effects of early experience on glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that influence neural activity in areas of the brain associated with executive functions, primarily as studied in animal models. Finally, it considers the strengths and limitations of this research, its relevance to understanding stress reactivity from the perspective of biological sensitivity to context, and the implications for the study of risk and resilience processes and early intervention to prevent developmental delays.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that early psychosocial stress, especially in poverty, can shape stress-response systems and prefrontal-limbic circuitry underlying executive function and self-regulation. It emphasizes that stress reactivity is not inherently harmful; outcomes depend on the quality of caregiving and context.
Key findings
- Animal models show that chronic prenatal or early neonatal stress increases stress reactivity and disrupts regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, with effects on limbic structures and prefrontal cortex areas important for executive functions and self-regulation.
- Glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels follow an inverted-U relationship with executive functions: moderate increases support executive function, while very high or very low levels are linked to deficits; this parallels the Yerkes-Dodson arousal-performance principle for complex tasks.
- Context determines whether high reactivity is beneficial or risky: supportive, resource-rich caregiving is associated with better-regulated stress physiology and reflective self-regulation, whereas low-support, unpredictable environments are associated with reactive behavior and poorer self-regulation.
- In a predominantly low-income longitudinal sample, infants whose mothers were highly sensitive had lower baseline cortisol and lower cortisol reactivity at 7 months, and reduced overall cortisol at 15 months; animal enrichment studies show behavioral and cognitive reversal of early stress effects, though not always matching neural changes.
Methods
- This is a conceptual review, not a new empirical study; it synthesizes animal-model and human research on stress, caregiving, poverty, brain development, and self-regulation.
- The main analysis is narrative integration of findings on HPA-axis function, glucocorticoid and catecholamine effects on prefrontal cortex, executive function, differential susceptibility, biological sensitivity to context, and early intervention.
- Human evidence discussed includes studies of children in poverty and a longitudinal low-income sample with cortisol measures at 7 and 15 months.
Limitations
- The author states that although animal models are compelling because of their specificity and control, the extent to which their neural and physiological mechanisms operate in human populations remains uncertain, and human development involves broader and more diverse influences.
- The author notes additional influences on neural plasticity beyond early care, including enriched-environment activity and genetic background, and calls for gene-environment and epigenetic research.
- Evident from the text: catecholamine–executive function relations in children have not been demonstrated because noninvasive assessment is difficult; whether chronic early stress affects children’s stress-response systems to the same degree as in animal models is not yet established.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
54 Not checked yet · 22 Own interpretation · 4 No basis given · 2 Sources not found
In the paper
“Studies have linked persistently elevated levels of physiological reactivity to stress with adverse physical and mental health outcomes across the lifespan (McEwen, 2000)”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McEwen, 2000 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In unpredictable environments in which resources are scarce or social conflict is high, more reactive and less reflective patterns of cognition and behavior are likely to be adaptive and to result in short-term benefits if not longer term health and self-regulation benefits.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“It is prominent among the several mediating mechanisms through which risk for poor physical and mental health increases in inverse relation to socioeconomic status (SES; Adler et al., 1994).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Adler et al., 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“a number of studies have definitively linked income poverty and low SES to children’s health and development (McLeod & Shanahan, 1993; McLoyd, 1998).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McLeod & Shanahan, 1993
- Not checked yetcites McLoyd, 1998 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Until recently, however, the field has lacked in-depth examination of stress as an aspect of the link between poverty and child development (Evans, 2003).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans, 2003 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies have indicated specific contexts, more prevalent in low-income homes, that are more stressful for infants and young, such as nonoptimal attachment relationships with primary caregivers (de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998; Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996) and maternal unavailability (Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003; Haley & Stansbury, 2003).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, high reactive children in less supportive rearing circumstances are more likely to exhibit high glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that are not well regulated and therefore not conducive to long-term potentiation and to EF and self-regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This is because higher levels of social support are associated with faster glucocorticoid (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004) and presumably catecholamine recovery from stress.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In an increasing number of studies examining the differential susceptibility theory, infants and young children characterized by high levels of behavioral reactivity and negative emotionality are particularly likely to exhibit optimal regulation of behavior in high-quality environments but unfavorable outcomes in low-quality environments (Blair, 2002; Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998; van den Boom, 19”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“research in animal models suggests that one mechanism of this effect of poverty on child development is through structural effects of early stress on brain development in key areas important for EFs and stress regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 2
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Animal models have demonstrated that chronic stress in the prenatal and/or very early neonatal periods (demonstrated through manipulations that directly increase the physiological response to stress) leads to increased stress reactivity and to poor regulation of stress reactivity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis component of the stress response system”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Animal models of early experience
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In high-risk environments, however, higher reactivity is likely to occur without support for the regulation of reactivity and to lead to poor developmental outcomes.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“High reactivity to stress on its own does not confer risk and may even enhance development in supportive contexts (Boyce & Ellis, 2005).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boyce & Ellis, 2005 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several studies have demonstrated that economic adversity is associated with disruptions in parenting behaviors and that psychological distress in parents is linked to poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children (Brody & Flor, 1998; Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brody & Flor, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, of the two types of glucocorticoid receptors in the brain, glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR), GRs are less sensitive to glucocorticoids than MRs and therefore remain largely unoccupied at low levels of stress arousal. However, with increasing stress and moderate glucocorticoid increase, GR occupation increases, supporting synaptic long-term potentiation. Increases in glucoc”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Kloet, Oitzl, & Joels, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Erickson, Drevets, & Schulkin, 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although similar relations likely exist between catecholamine levels and EFs in children, no studies to date have demonstrated these relations because of the difficulty of noninvasively assessing catecholamine levels.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In supportive contexts, this stimulation results in the development of physiology that is conducive to reflective self-regulation, whereas in unsupportive, less predictable contexts, it leads to the development of physiology that is conducive to high behavioral reactivity and low reflective self-regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, moderate increases in norepinephrine (NE), a primary neuromodulator associated with the sympathetic-adrenal system, result in increased occupation of a specific type of adrenoceptor that has a high affinity for NE and is predominantly located in PFC and associated with EF (Ramos & Arnsten, 2007). At increases beyond a moderate level, however, this type of receptor becomes saturated”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ramos & Arnsten, 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Research in animal models indicates that early experience programs the development of stress response systems to make them more or less sensitive to stress hormones, with implications for the structure and function of brain areas important for the self-regulation of cognition and behavior (Meaney, 2001).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meaney, 2001 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“increased allostatic load is apparent in response to chronic environmental stressors in children living in poverty and similarly related to health outcomes (Evans & Kim, 2007).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans & Kim, 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although children in both contexts are stress reactive, those in more supportive contexts are more likely to exhibit efficient regulation of stress reactivity.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In these models, targeted disruptions of PFC corticolimbic connectivity through lesion, transient inactivation, and pharmacological manipulation as well as stress induction procedures result in lower performance on tasks requiring EFs (Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007; Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt, & Robbins, 1998; Floresco, Seamans, & Phillips, 1997; Goldstein, Rasmusson, Bun”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Animal models of early experience
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007 source
- Not checked yetcites Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt, & Robbins, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Floresco, Seamans, & Phillips, 1997
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the Yerkes-Dodson principle, arousal at moderate levels increases performance on complex tasks but at very high or very low levels impairs performance.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yerkes & Dodson, 1908 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“research in behavioral neuroscience has demonstrated that extended maternal separation and low levels of maternal specific maternal behaviors in rats are associated with problems with stress regulation and adverse cognitive and behavioral outcomes in offspring (Meaney, 2001).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meaney, 2001 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, brief maternal separation/handling of rat pups increases levels of maternal behaviors, notably licking and grooming upon reunion, that promote gene expression associated with the density of GR receptors in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical env”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low-quality early caregiving is highly likely to serve as a primary source of stress for children or as a mediator of environmental stressors, with stressful social and physical conditions of the home leading to stress on parents and to low-quality early care.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In this way, levels of NE act to influence the neural response to stimulation, promoting neural activity in PFC associated with reflective and reasoned responses to stimulation at moderate levels of arousal, whereas at high levels, NE reduces neural activity in PFC and increases neural activity in brain areas associated with reactive, automatized responses to stimulation (Arnsten, 2000).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arnsten, 2000 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The provision of competent caregiving in early compensatory care and education would be expected, in theory, to have effects on developing self-regulation in children experiencing high levels of disrupted caregiving that are in part mediated through stress reactivity and PFC functioning.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Implications for early intervention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, early life stress, which is more frequent in the context of poverty, would attenuate developing self-regulation in children characterized by high reactivity and begin to shape developmental trajectories toward nonoptimal outcomes.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Early life stress is more frequent in poverty.
In the paper
“Similarly, Bredy, Humpartzoomian, Cain, and Meaney (2003) demonstrated that the effects of low maternal caregiving competence on hippocampally dependent learning and memory could be reversed at the behavioral level through environmental enrichment but that the physiological function of the hippocampus was not altered in expected ways.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Implications for early intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bredy, Humpartzoomian, Cain, and Meaney, 2003
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reactivity is more likely in high-quality care to promote aspects of cognition and behavior important for reflective self-regulation but in low-quality care to promote reactive responses to stimulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although evidence from animal models is compelling because of its specificity and high level of control, the extent to which neural and physiological mechanisms relating stress, early caregiving, and developmental outcomes might be at work in human populations remains open to question.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, early compensatory education and care interventions to promote learning and increase the regulation of reactivity through various activities with caring and supportive others in a predictable, stimulating environment would be expected to promote competencies such as EF and self-control that are important contributors to ongoing success in life.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chronic early rearing stress affects the activity of stress response systems with consequences for the regulation of cognition and behavior.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increasing numbers of studies in human populations indicate that single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with glucocorticoid and catecholamine activity in PFC corticolimbic circuitry are related to variation in EF and perhaps, to some extent, susceptibility to early stress effects on cognition (Hariri, Drabant, & Weinberger, 2006; Pezawas et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2007).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
“Relations among early experience, PFC connectivity, and EFs demonstrated in animal models are important for child development research in that EFs describe information processing abilities that allow for actively maintaining and processing task-relevant information in working memory”
“Although early rearing environments for children differ in many ways from those of rats, the caregiving environment for children facing low SES is more likely than typical home environments to be disorganized and lacking in appropriate stimulation and support”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early life stress is more frequent in poverty.
“early life stress, which is more frequent in the context of poverty”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In supportive and structured environments, however, regulation of stress hormones would occur and facilitate reflective and flexible forms of behavior and cognition, such as executive functions (Blair, 2010).”
From Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood (2011) · cites this paper as Blair, 2010
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
“(Panksepp, Burgdorf, Turner, & Gordon, 2002; van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 2000)”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > References
“74. Panksepp J Burgdorf J Turner C Gordon N Modeling ADHD-type arousal with unilateral frontal cortex damage in rats and beneficial effects of play therapy Brain and Cognition 2003 52 97 105”
Citations
Cites
Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., McClay, J., Mill, J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A., et al. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1083968 · Cited by 8,120 · cited 2×
“Examples of gene– environment interaction in the study of stress and development (Caspi et al., 2003) have also made clear that research incorporating information on genetic background can lead to a more specific understanding of the mechanisms through which the stress response and early care are…”
BackgroundThe relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908) · Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology · doi:10.1002/cne.920180503 · Cited by 6,911
Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior
Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., Dymov, S., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2004) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1276 · Cited by 6,177 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundDickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355 · Cited by 5,881 · cited 1×
“This is because higher levels of social support are associated with faster glucocorticoid (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004) and presumably catecholamine recovery from stress.”
BackgroundSocioeconomic disadvantage and child development
McLoyd, V. C. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.2.185 · Cited by 3,763 · cited 3×
“…of Applied Psychology, New York University, 246 Greene Street, Kimball Hall, 8th floor, New York, NY 10003; e-mail: eclancy.blair@nyu.edu. ª 2010 The Author Child Development Perspectives ª 2010 The Society for Research in Child Development Volume 4, Number 3 Shanahan, 1993; McLoyd, 1998).”
BackgroundSkill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children
Heckman, J. J. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1128898 · Cited by 3,559 · cited 1×
“In the evaluation of model early intervention programs, there is an increasing recognition of the importance of personality and social competence factors associated with self-control and on aspects of cognition, such as EFs, that are distinct from general intelligence (Heckman, 2006, 2007).”
BackgroundThe concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00024-7 · Cited by 3,302 · cited 1×
“…CONTEXT OF POVERTY In humans, primarily in research with adults, chronically stressful environments result in sustained demands on stress response systems that are ultimately pathogenic in a variety of disease states, a phenomenon known as allostatic load (McEwen, 2000; McEwen & Wingfield, 2003).”
BackgroundLiu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., Sharma, S., Pearson, D., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5332.1659 · Cited by 3,170 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundExecutive functions and developmental psychopathology.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x · Cited by 3,150 · cited 1×
“…social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental disorders and psychopathologies in children (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Zelazo & Müller, 2002).”
BackgroundBlair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x · Cited by 3,140 · cited 1×
“In humans, Child Development Perspectives, Vo EFs have been related to multiple aspects of developing social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental…”
BackgroundSelf-citationRisky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.330 · Cited by 2,884
Meaney, M. J. (2001) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161 · Cited by 2,708 · cited 6×
“…result in chronic overactivation leading to illness or to delays in the development of cognitive abilities and behaviors that are valued within socially constructed environments such as the school classroom or the workplace) is not synonymous with its characterization as adaptive (Meaney, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialNeural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
The environment of childhood poverty
Evans, G. W. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.2.77 · Cited by 2,396 · cited 2×
“Although early rearing environments for children differ in many ways from those of rats, the caregiving environment for children facing low SES is more likely than typical home environments to be disorganized and lacking in appropriate stimulation and support, thereby creating conditions that are stressful for childre…”
BackgroundSocioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient
Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme, S. L. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.1.15 · Cited by 2,383 · cited 1×
“It is prominent among the several mediating mechanisms through which risk for poor physical and mental health increases in inverse relation to socioeconomic status (SES; Adler et al., 1994).”
BackgroundBOYCE, W. T., & ELLIS, B. J. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050145 · Cited by 2,078
Individual Differences in Inhibitory Control and Children's Theory of Mind
Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00333 · Cited by 2,072 · cited 1×
“…Development Perspectives, Vo EFs have been related to multiple aspects of developing social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental…”
BackgroundPezawas, L., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Drabant, E. M., Verchinski, B. A., Munoz, K. E., Kolachana, B. S., Egan, M. F., Mattay, V. S., Hariri, A. R., & Weinberger, D. R. (2005) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1463 · Cited by 1,980 · cited 2×
“tion in EF and perhaps, to some extent, susceptibility to early stress effects on cognition (Hariri, Drabant, & Weinberger, 2006; Pezawas et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2007).”
BackgroundNongenomic Transmission Across Generations of Maternal Behavior and Stress Responses in the Rat
Francis, D., Diorio, J., Liu, D., & Meaney, M. J. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.286.5442.1155 · Cited by 1,965
McEwen, B. S. (2000) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0006-8993(00)02950-4 · Cited by 1,827 · cited 4×
“In humans, primarily in research with adults, chronically stressful environments result in sustained demands on stress response systems that are ultimately pathogenic in a variety of disease states, a phenomenon known as allostatic load (McEwen, 2000; McEwen & Wingfield, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialFor Better and For Worse: Differential Susceptibility to Environmental Influences
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00525.x · Cited by 1,515
Stress and cognition: are corticosteroids good or bad guys?
de Kloet, E. R., Oitzl, M. S., & Joëls, M. (1999) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(99)01438-1 · Cited by 1,258
Diamond, A. (2002) · Principles of Frontal Lobe Function · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0029 · Cited by 1,248 · cited 1×
“…information in working memory, for flexibly sustaining and shifting attention between distinct but related aspects of a given task, and for inhibiting extraneous information and automatic responding associated with prepotent stimuli (Diamond, 2002; Zelazo, Müller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003).”
BackgroundMaternal care, hippocampal synaptogenesis and cognitive development in rats
Liu, D., Diorio, J., Day, J. C., Francis, D. D., & Meaney, M. J. (2000) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/77702 · Cited by 1,195 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundSocial regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development
Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(01)00045-2 · Cited by 1,088 · cited 1×
“Research on the stress response has appropriately focused on the deleterious consequences of atypically high or low stress levels, as indicated by cortisol, on development (Gunnar & Donzella, 2002; Gunnar, Tout, de Haan, Pierce, & Stansbury, 1997).”
BackgroundLemaire, V., Koehl, M., Le Moal, M., & Abrous, D. N. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.97.20.11032 · Cited by 1,044
The economics, technology, and neuroscience of human capability formation.
Heckman, J. J. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0701362104 · Cited by 1,042
Inverted-U dopamine D1 receptor actions on prefrontal neurons engaged in working memory
Vijayraghavan, S., Wang, M., Birnbaum, S. G., Williams, G. V., & Arnsten, A. F. T. (2007) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1846 · Cited by 1,013
SÁNCHEZ, M. M., LADD, C. O., & PLOTSKY, P. M. (2001) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579401003029 · Cited by 1,003
Meaney, M. J., & Szyf, M. (2005) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2005.7.2/mmeaney · Cited by 958
Neurobiology of Executive Functions: Catecholamine Influences on Prefrontal Cortical Functions
Arnsten, A. F. T., & Li, B.-M. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.019 · Cited by 948 · cited 2×
“…supportive contexts, glucocorticoid and catecholamine receptor occupation is more likely to reach a point at which stress acts to take PFC ‘‘offline’’ (Arnsten & Li, 2005) and to result in reactive responses to stimulation associated with subcortical and posterior brain systems rather than…”
BackgroundPsychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control
Liston, C., McEwen, B. S., & Casey, B. J. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0807041106 · Cited by 859
Poverty, Parenting, and Children's Mental Health.
McLeod, J., & Shanahan, M. (1993) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095905 · Cited by 839
Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring
Weinstock, M. (2001) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(01)00018-1 · Cited by 791 · cited 1×
“…the HPA response to stress and also for cognitive abilities referred to as executive functions (EFs) that are important for learning and memory and the effortful regulation of behavior (Liu, Diorio, Day, Francis, & Meaney, 2000; Meaney & Szyf, 2005; Sanchez, Ladd, & Plotsky, 2001; Weinstock, 2001).”
BackgroundExecutive Function in Typical and Atypical Development
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2010) · The Wiley‐Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development · doi:10.1002/9781444325485.ch22 · Cited by 784 · cited 1×
“…social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental disorders and psychopathologies in children (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Zelazo & Müller, 2002).”
BackgroundDiamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Halonen, J., & Zoladz, P. R. (2007) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2007/60803 · Cited by 762
Long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine adaptations to adverse early experience
Ladd, C. O., Huot, R. L., Thrivikraman, K. V., Nemeroff, C. B., Meaney, M. J., & Plotsky, P. M. (2000) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(08)62132-9 · Cited by 726 · cited 1×
“…to stress) leads to increased stress reactivity and to poor regulation of stress reactivity in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis component of the stress response system (Francis, Diorio, Liu, & Meaney, 1999; Huizink, Mulder, & Buitelaar, 2004; Ladd et al., 2000; Liu et al., 1997).”
BackgroundExecutive Function in Typical and Atypical Development
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470996652.ch20 · Cited by 692
Environmental Enrichment Reverses the Effects of Maternal Separation on Stress Reactivity
Francis, D. D., Diorio, J., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2002) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-18-07840.2002 · Cited by 663 · cited 1×
“The findings of Francis et al. (2002) and Bredy et al. (2003) indicate that the effects of enrichment as seen at the behavioral level are not necessarily mirrored in expected changes at the biological level (Fernandez-Teruel et al., 2002).”
BackgroundChampagne, D. L., Bagot, R. C., van Hasselt, F., Ramakers, G., Meaney, M. J., de Kloet, E. R., Joels, M., & Krugers, H. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0526-08.2008 · Cited by 661 · cited 2×
“In these models, targeted disruptions of PFC corticolimbic connectivity through lesion, transient inactivation, and pharmacological manipulation as well as stress induction procedures result in lower performance on tasks requiring EFs (Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007; Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt,…”
MethodI. The Development of Executive Function
Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch, S. (2003) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.0037-976x.2003.00261.x · Cited by 655
Adrenergic pharmacology and cognition: Focus on the prefrontal cortex
Ramos, B. P., & Arnsten, A. F. T. (2007) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2006.11.006 · Cited by 641 · cited 1×
“For example, moderate increases in NE, a primary neuromodulator associated with the sympathetic-adrenal system, result in increased occupation of a specific type of adrenoceptor that has a high affinity for NE and is predominantly located in PFC and associated with EF (Ramos & Arnsten, 2007).”
BackgroundFloresco, S. B., Seamans, J. K., & Phillips, A. G. (1997) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-05-01880.1997 · Cited by 626
A multimethodological analysis of cumulative risk and allostatic load among rural children
Evans, G. W. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.924 · Cited by 624 · cited 1×
“Until recently, however, the field has lacked in-depth examination of stress as an aspect of the link between poverty and child development (Evans, 2003).”
Backgroundvan den Boom, D. C. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00829.x · Cited by 613
The prefrontal cortex as a key target of the maladaptive response to stress
Cerqueira, J. J., Mailliet, F., Almeida, O. F. X., Jay, T. M., & Sousa, N. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4372-06.2007 · Cited by 599
Variations in maternal care in infancy regulate the development of stress reactivity
Caldji, C., Diorio, J. C., & Meaney, M. J. (2000) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01084-2 · Cited by 588
Childhood Poverty and Health: Cumulative Risk Exposure and Stress Dysregulation
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02008.x · Cited by 586
Salivary α‐Amylase in Biobehavioral Research: Recent Developments and Applications
GRANGER, D. A., KIVLIGHAN, K. T., El‐SHEIKH, M., GORDIS, E. B., & STROUD, L. R. (2007) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1384.008 · Cited by 572
Lupien, S. J., Gillin, C. J., & Hauger, R. L. (1999) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.113.3.420 · Cited by 561
LUPIEN, S. J., Gillin, C. J., & Hauger, R. L. (1999) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.113.3.420 · Cited by 556
Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. L. (1998) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06244.x · Cited by 552 · cited 1×
“Several studies have demonstrated that economic adversity is associated with disruptions in parenting behaviors and that psychological distress in parents is linked to poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children (Brody & Flor, 1998; Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000).”
BackgroundBelsky, J., HSIEH, K.-H., & Crnic, K. A. (1998) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457949800162x · Cited by 493
Prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses: From randomized trials to community replication
Olds, D. L. (2002) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1023/a:1019990432161 · Cited by 490 · cited 2×
“Most, though not all, intervention studies have either targeted parenting behaviors directly (Barnard, 1997; Olds, 2002) or, as in the case of center-based care, provided a type of care that is characterized by high levels of caregiver sensitivity and careful structuring of experience (Gross, Spiker, & Haynes, 1997).”
BackgroundGottlieb, G. (1998) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.105.4.792-802 · Cited by 489
Seamans, J. K., Floresco, S., & Phillips, A. G. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-04-01613.1998 · Cited by 480
Huizink, A. C., Mulder, E. J. H., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.115 · Cited by 473
Stress-induced prefrontal reorganization and executive dysfunction in rodents
Holmes, A., & Wellman, C. L. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.11.005 · Cited by 469 · cited 1×
“…termination of the stress response; and areas of PFC, particularly ventral medial and orbital PFC important for regulating the stress response, for regulating emotion, and for coordinating thought and action in the control of behavior through EFs (Barbas & Zikopoulos, 2007; Holmes & Wellman, 2009).”
BackgroundIndividual Development and Evolution
Gottlieb, G. (2001) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410604422 · Cited by 461
Individual development and evolution: the genesis of novel behavior
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.30-0281 · Cited by 455
Executive function and theory of mind. Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4
Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1447 · Cited by 453 · cited 1×
“…Vo EFs have been related to multiple aspects of developing social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental disorders and psychopathologies…”
BackgroundSingle Mothers in Low-Wage Jobs: Financial Strain, Parenting, and Preschoolers' Outcomes
Jackson, A. P., Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B., Huang, C., & Glassman, M. B. (2000) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00236 · Cited by 437
Glucocorticoid regulation of diverse cognitive functions in normal and pathological emotional states
Erickson, K., Drevets, W. C., & Schulkin, J. A. (2003) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00033-2 · Cited by 422
Haley, D. W., & Stansbury, K. E. (2003) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00621 · Cited by 392 · cited 1×
“…Development Perspectives, Vo such as nonoptimal attachment relationships with primary caregivers (de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998; Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996) and maternal unavailability (Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003; Haley & Stansbury, 2003).”
Goldstein, L. E., Rasmusson, A. M., Bunney, B. S., & Roth, R. H. (1996) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.16-15-04787.1996 · Cited by 387
ELLIS, B. J., ESSEX, M. J., & BOYCE, W. T. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050157 · Cited by 383 · cited 2×
“Consistent with an emphasis on the role of early caregiving in animal models of stress (Meaney & Szyf, 2005), and on the relation between stress reactivity and context (Ellis et al., 2005), these studies suggest that relations between stress reactivity and later developmental outcomes are in part determined by early c…”
BackgroundBlair, C., Granger, D., & Peters Razza, R. (2005) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00863.x · Cited by 367
Self-citationCumulative risk, maternal responsiveness, and allostatic load among young adolescents.
Evans, G. W., Kim, P., Ting, A. H., Tesher, H. B., & Shannis, D. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.341 · Cited by 355
The development of executive function in early childhood.
(2003) · doi:10.1111/j.0037-976x.2003.00260.x · Cited by 353
van den Boom, D. C. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131511 · Cited by 341 · cited 1×
“…characterized by high levels of behavioral reactivity and negative emotionality are particularly likely to exhibit optimal regulation of behavior in high-quality environments but unfavorable outcomes in low-quality environments (Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998; Blair, 2002; van den Boom, 1994).”
BackgroundHariri, A. R., Drabant, E. M., & Weinberger, D. R. (2006) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.11.005 · Cited by 341
RADLEY, J., ROCHER, A., JANSSEN, W., HOF, P., MCEWEN, B., & MORRISON, J. (2005) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.07.008 · Cited by 323 · cited 1×
“Encouragingly, however, research with adult animals as well as humans suggests the reversibility to some extent of the effects of short-term stress on PFC neural circuitry and EFs (Liston, McEwen, & Casey, 2009; Radley et al., 2005).”
BackgroundBredy, T. W., Humpartzoomian, R., Cain, D. P., & Meaney, M. J. (2003) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(02)00918-1 · Cited by 253 · cited 2×
“The findings of Francis et al. (2002) and Bredy et al. (2003) indicate that the effects of enrichment as seen at the behavioral level are not necessarily mirrored in expected changes at the biological level (Fernandez-Teruel et al., 2002).”
BackgroundWeaver, I. C. G. (2007) · Epigenetics · doi:10.4161/epi.2.1.3881 · Cited by 239 · cited 1×
“…behavior in the rat that is so central to the development of the HPA stress response system produces its effect through molecular mechanisms that alter the epigenetic state of the gene that codes for GR receptor density in the hippocampus (Meaney & Szyf, 2005; Weaver, 2007; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundCollins, P., Roberts, A., Dias, R. S., Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (1998) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892998562771 · Cited by 235
Through the looking glass: Differential noradenergic modulation of prefrontal cortical function
Arnsten, A. F. T. (2000) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/np.2000.133 · Cited by 229 · cited 2×
“neural activity in PFC associated with reflective and reasoned responses to stimulation at moderate levels of arousal, whereas at high levels, NE reduces neural activity in PFC and increases neural activity in brain areas associated with reactive, automatized responses to stimulation (Arnsten, 2000).”
BackgroundRisky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring.
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.230 · Cited by 225
Dampening of Adrenocortical Responses during Infancy: Normative Changes and Individual Differences
Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Krueger, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01770.x · Cited by 222
(1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571114 · Cited by 218
Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., Hoyt-Meyers, L., Magnus, K. B., & Fagen, D. B. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00047 · Cited by 207 · cited 1×
“And numerous studies have shown high-quality caregiving to moderate the effects of poverty on child development outcomes (e.g., Ramey & Campbell, 1991; Wyman et al., 1999).”
BackgroundThe hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment
Bugental, D. B., Martorell, G. A., & Barraza, V. (2003) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00008-9 · Cited by 204
The effects of neonatal stress on brain development: implications for psychopathology
GRAHAM, Y. P., HEIM, C., GOODMAN, S. H., MILLER, A. H., & NEMEROFF, C. B. (1999) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579499002205 · Cited by 197
Endogenous glucocorticoids are essential for maintaining prefrontal cortical cognitive function
Mizoguchi, K., Ishige, A., Takeda, S., Aburada, M., & Tabira, T. (2004) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0086-04.2004 · Cited by 192 · cited 2×
“Very high or very low levels of glucocorticoids and catecholamines are associated with deficits in EFs, whereas moderate increases are associated with higher level of EFs (Arnsten & Li, 2005; Lupien, Gillin, & Hauger, 1999; Mizoguchi et al., 2004; Vijayraghavan, Wang, Birnbaum, Williams, & Arnsten, 2007).”
BackgroundThe Prefrontal Cortex and Flexible Behavior
Barbas, H., & Zikopoulos, B. (2007) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858407301369 · Cited by 188 · cited 1×
“…termination of the stress response; and areas of PFC, particularly ventral medial and orbital PFC important for regulating the stress response, for regulating emotion, and for coordinating thought and action in the control of behavior through EFs (Barbas & Zikopoulos, 2007; Holmes & Wellman, 2009).”
BackgroundDavis, E. P., Bruce, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2001) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.10012 · Cited by 187
Blair, C., Family Life Project Investigators, Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Mills-Koonce, R., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., Hibel, L. C., & Fortunato, C. K. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1095 · Cited by 177 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, when these infants were followed up at age 15 months, overall cortisol levels, both at baseline and in response to stress, were reduced for children of mothers high in sensitivity (Blair et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCentral corticosteroid actions: Search for gene targets
Datson, N. A., Morsink, M. C., Meijer, O. C., & de Kloet, E. R. (2008) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.070 · Cited by 171
Early-life handling stimulation and environmental enrichment
Fernández-Teruel, A., Giménez-Llort, L., Escorihuela, R. M., Gil, L., Aguilar, R., Steimer, T., & Tobeña, A. (2002) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0091-3057(02)00787-6 · Cited by 171 · cited 1×
“The findings of Francis et al. (2002) and Bredy et al. (2003) indicate that the effects of enrichment as seen at the behavioral level are not necessarily mirrored in expected changes at the biological level (Fernandez-Teruel et al., 2002).”
BackgroundDampening of Adrenocortical Responses during Infancy: Normative Changes and Individual Differences
Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Krueger, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131867 · Cited by 156
Braun, K., Lange, E., Metzger, M., & Poeggel, G. (1999) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(99)00420-0 · Cited by 152
BLAIR, C. (2002) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579402002079 · Cited by 150 · cited 1×
“…characterized by high levels of behavioral reactivity and negative emotionality are particularly likely to exhibit optimal regulation of behavior in high-quality environments but unfavorable outcomes in low-quality environments (Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998; Blair, 2002; van den Boom, 1994).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTan, H.-Y., Chen, Q., Goldberg, T. E., Mattay, V. S., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Weinberger, D. R., & Callicott, J. H. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4041-07.2007 · Cited by 144 · cited 2×
“tion in EF and perhaps, to some extent, susceptibility to early stress effects on cognition (Hariri, Drabant, & Weinberger, 2006; Pezawas et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2007).”
BackgroundCatalani, A., Marinelli, M., Scaccianoce, S., Nicolai, R., Muscolo, L. A. A., Porcu, A., Kora´nyi, L., Piazza, P. V., & Angelucci, L. (1993) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(93)90079-3 · Cited by 133 · cited 1×
“The idea here, which finds support in the animal literature (Catalani et al., 1993; Parker, Buckmaster, Justus, Schatzberg, & Lyons, 2005), is that early care and controlled experience with stress help to produce an overall lower level of physiological reactivity to stress.”
ResultKinnunen, A., Koenig, J. I., & Bilbe, G. (2003) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.01873.x · Cited by 127
Helping low birth weight, premature babies : the infant health and development program
Gross, R. T., Spiker, D., & HAYNES, C. W. (1997) · Cited by 114
Mild early life stress enhances prefrontal-dependent response inhibition in monkeys
Parker, K. J., Buckmaster, C. L., Justus, K. R., Schatzberg, A. F., & Lyons, D. M. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.12.024 · Cited by 109
Panksepp, J., Burgdorf, J. S., Turner, C. A., & Gordon, N. S. (2003) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00013-7 · Cited by 92
The Various Roles of Animal Models in Understanding Human Development
Gottlieb, G., & Lickliter, R. E. (2004) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.000269.x · Cited by 50 · cited 1×
“The breadth and diversity of influences on human development is far greater than that examined in nonhuman animal models (Gottlieb & Lickliter, 2004).”
BackgroundGlidden, L. M., & Floyd, F. J. (1997) · American Journal on Mental Retardation · doi:10.1352/0895-8017(1997)102
Temperament, social competence, and adrenocortical activity in preschoolers
Gunnar, M. R., Tout, K., de Haan, M., Pierce, S., & Stanbury, K. (1997) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(199707)31:1
Dettling (1998) · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(199807)33:1
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Barnard, 1997, The effectiveness of early intervention, 249
- Bryant, 1997, The effectiveness of early intervention, 23
- Ramey, 1991, Children in poverty, 190
- Zelazo, 2002, Handbook of childhood cognitive development, 445
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Childhood Poverty, Chronic Stress, Self-Regulation, and Coping
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12013 · Cited by 962
“self-control, they have more trouble delaying gratification, they manifest attentional-control problems, they exhibit weaker inhibitory control, and they have diminished capacity for working memory (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; Evans et al., 2005; Hackman, Farah, & Meaney, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialWright, M. O., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_2 · Cited by 832
Bridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., & Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038662 · Cited by 730
“Such reasoning has already appeared in the literature on SR (Blair, 2010) and allostatic load (see McEwen, 1998 or Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007).”
The development of self-regulation across early childhood.
Montroy, J. J., Bowles, R. P., Skibbe, L. E., McClelland, M. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2016) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000159 · Cited by 629
“Heterogeneity in behavioral self-regulation development Several prominent theories suggest the possibility of multiple self-regulation growth trajectories across early childhood (see Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; 2015; Calkins, 2007; Lerner & Overton, 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBlair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., Kivlighan, K. T., Fortunato, C. K., & the FLP Investigators (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01643.x · Cited by 579
“In supportive and structured environments, however, regulation of stress hormones would occur and facilitate reflective and flexible forms of behavior and cognition, such as executive functions (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Blair, C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blair, Clancy
- ORCID
- Blair, Clancy
- Venue
- Child Development Perspectives
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-11-15
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 181-188
- ISSN
- 1750-8592 (ISSN-L)
- 1750-8606
- PMC
- PMC3138186
- OpenAlex
- W1509600221
- Semantic Scholar
- e8bd68422006a96ca29c5f492938e1cb862229bd
- Cited by
- 379
- References
- 101
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 6.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Child Development Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P01HD039667, R03HD039750, R01HD051502)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- psychosocial stress, child development, self-regulation, executive function, poverty, glucocorticoids, catecholamines, artificial neural networks, stress reactivity, risk and resilience, developmental delay prevention, early intervention
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-06, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-06 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
