The DOI matches its Crossref record; 101 of the 101 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 91 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context
Open accessAbstract
This article considers the effects of psychosocial stress on child development and describes mechanisms through which early stress in the context of poverty affects the functioning of neural networks that underlie executive functions and self-regulation. It examines the effects of early experience on glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that influence neural activity in areas of the brain associated with executive functions, primarily as studied in animal models. Finally, it considers the strengths and limitations of this research, its relevance to understanding stress reactivity from the perspective of biological sensitivity to context, and the implications for the study of risk and resilience processes and early intervention to prevent developmental delays.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that early psychosocial stress, especially in poverty, can shape stress-response systems and prefrontal-limbic circuitry underlying executive function and self-regulation. It emphasizes that stress reactivity is not inherently harmful; outcomes depend on the quality of caregiving and context.
Key findings
- Animal models show that chronic prenatal or early neonatal stress increases stress reactivity and disrupts regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, with effects on limbic structures and prefrontal cortex areas important for executive functions and self-regulation.
- Glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels follow an inverted-U relationship with executive functions: moderate increases support executive function, while very high or very low levels are linked to deficits; this parallels the Yerkes-Dodson arousal-performance principle for complex tasks.
- Context determines whether high reactivity is beneficial or risky: supportive, resource-rich caregiving is associated with better-regulated stress physiology and reflective self-regulation, whereas low-support, unpredictable environments are associated with reactive behavior and poorer self-regulation.
- In a predominantly low-income longitudinal sample, infants whose mothers were highly sensitive had lower baseline cortisol and lower cortisol reactivity at 7 months, and reduced overall cortisol at 15 months; animal enrichment studies show behavioral and cognitive reversal of early stress effects, though not always matching neural changes.
Methods
- This is a conceptual review, not a new empirical study; it synthesizes animal-model and human research on stress, caregiving, poverty, brain development, and self-regulation.
- The main analysis is narrative integration of findings on HPA-axis function, glucocorticoid and catecholamine effects on prefrontal cortex, executive function, differential susceptibility, biological sensitivity to context, and early intervention.
- Human evidence discussed includes studies of children in poverty and a longitudinal low-income sample with cortisol measures at 7 and 15 months.
Limitations
- The author states that although animal models are compelling because of their specificity and control, the extent to which their neural and physiological mechanisms operate in human populations remains uncertain, and human development involves broader and more diverse influences.
- The author notes additional influences on neural plasticity beyond early care, including enriched-environment activity and genetic background, and calls for gene-environment and epigenetic research.
- Evident from the text: catecholamine–executive function relations in children have not been demonstrated because noninvasive assessment is difficult; whether chronic early stress affects children’s stress-response systems to the same degree as in animal models is not yet established.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
54 Not checked yet · 22 Own interpretation · 4 No basis given · 2 Sources not found
In the paper
“Studies have linked persistently elevated levels of physiological reactivity to stress with adverse physical and mental health outcomes across the lifespan (McEwen, 2000)”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McEwen, 2000 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In unpredictable environments in which resources are scarce or social conflict is high, more reactive and less reflective patterns of cognition and behavior are likely to be adaptive and to result in short-term benefits if not longer term health and self-regulation benefits.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“It is prominent among the several mediating mechanisms through which risk for poor physical and mental health increases in inverse relation to socioeconomic status (SES; Adler et al., 1994).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Adler et al., 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“a number of studies have definitively linked income poverty and low SES to children’s health and development (McLeod & Shanahan, 1993; McLoyd, 1998).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McLeod & Shanahan, 1993
- Not checked yetcites McLoyd, 1998 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Until recently, however, the field has lacked in-depth examination of stress as an aspect of the link between poverty and child development (Evans, 2003).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans, 2003 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies have indicated specific contexts, more prevalent in low-income homes, that are more stressful for infants and young, such as nonoptimal attachment relationships with primary caregivers (de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998; Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996) and maternal unavailability (Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003; Haley & Stansbury, 2003).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Haan, Gunnar, Tout, Hart, & Stansbury, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss, & Rigatuso, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, high reactive children in less supportive rearing circumstances are more likely to exhibit high glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that are not well regulated and therefore not conducive to long-term potentiation and to EF and self-regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This is because higher levels of social support are associated with faster glucocorticoid (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004) and presumably catecholamine recovery from stress.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In an increasing number of studies examining the differential susceptibility theory, infants and young children characterized by high levels of behavioral reactivity and negative emotionality are particularly likely to exhibit optimal regulation of behavior in high-quality environments but unfavorable outcomes in low-quality environments (Blair, 2002; Belsky, Hsieh, & Crnic, 1998; van den Boom, 19”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“research in animal models suggests that one mechanism of this effect of poverty on child development is through structural effects of early stress on brain development in key areas important for EFs and stress regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 2
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Animal models have demonstrated that chronic stress in the prenatal and/or very early neonatal periods (demonstrated through manipulations that directly increase the physiological response to stress) leads to increased stress reactivity and to poor regulation of stress reactivity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis component of the stress response system”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Animal models of early experience
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In high-risk environments, however, higher reactivity is likely to occur without support for the regulation of reactivity and to lead to poor developmental outcomes.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“High reactivity to stress on its own does not confer risk and may even enhance development in supportive contexts (Boyce & Ellis, 2005).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boyce & Ellis, 2005 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several studies have demonstrated that economic adversity is associated with disruptions in parenting behaviors and that psychological distress in parents is linked to poor cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children (Brody & Flor, 1998; Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brody & Flor, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Jackson, Brooks-Gunn, Huang, & Glassman, 2000
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, of the two types of glucocorticoid receptors in the brain, glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR), GRs are less sensitive to glucocorticoids than MRs and therefore remain largely unoccupied at low levels of stress arousal. However, with increasing stress and moderate glucocorticoid increase, GR occupation increases, supporting synaptic long-term potentiation. Increases in glucoc”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Kloet, Oitzl, & Joels, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Erickson, Drevets, & Schulkin, 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although similar relations likely exist between catecholamine levels and EFs in children, no studies to date have demonstrated these relations because of the difficulty of noninvasively assessing catecholamine levels.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In supportive contexts, this stimulation results in the development of physiology that is conducive to reflective self-regulation, whereas in unsupportive, less predictable contexts, it leads to the development of physiology that is conducive to high behavioral reactivity and low reflective self-regulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, moderate increases in norepinephrine (NE), a primary neuromodulator associated with the sympathetic-adrenal system, result in increased occupation of a specific type of adrenoceptor that has a high affinity for NE and is predominantly located in PFC and associated with EF (Ramos & Arnsten, 2007). At increases beyond a moderate level, however, this type of receptor becomes saturated”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ramos & Arnsten, 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Research in animal models indicates that early experience programs the development of stress response systems to make them more or less sensitive to stress hormones, with implications for the structure and function of brain areas important for the self-regulation of cognition and behavior (Meaney, 2001).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meaney, 2001 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“increased allostatic load is apparent in response to chronic environmental stressors in children living in poverty and similarly related to health outcomes (Evans & Kim, 2007).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans & Kim, 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although children in both contexts are stress reactive, those in more supportive contexts are more likely to exhibit efficient regulation of stress reactivity.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress in the context of poverty
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In these models, targeted disruptions of PFC corticolimbic connectivity through lesion, transient inactivation, and pharmacological manipulation as well as stress induction procedures result in lower performance on tasks requiring EFs (Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007; Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt, & Robbins, 1998; Floresco, Seamans, & Phillips, 1997; Goldstein, Rasmusson, Bun”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Animal models of early experience
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007 source
- Not checked yetcites Collins, Roberts, Dias, Everitt, & Robbins, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Floresco, Seamans, & Phillips, 1997
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the Yerkes-Dodson principle, arousal at moderate levels increases performance on complex tasks but at very high or very low levels impairs performance.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yerkes & Dodson, 1908 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“research in behavioral neuroscience has demonstrated that extended maternal separation and low levels of maternal specific maternal behaviors in rats are associated with problems with stress regulation and adverse cognitive and behavioral outcomes in offspring (Meaney, 2001).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meaney, 2001 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, brief maternal separation/handling of rat pups increases levels of maternal behaviors, notably licking and grooming upon reunion, that promote gene expression associated with the density of GR receptors in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical env”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low-quality early caregiving is highly likely to serve as a primary source of stress for children or as a mediator of environmental stressors, with stressful social and physical conditions of the home leading to stress on parents and to low-quality early care.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Caregiving as a mechanism
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In this way, levels of NE act to influence the neural response to stimulation, promoting neural activity in PFC associated with reflective and reasoned responses to stimulation at moderate levels of arousal, whereas at high levels, NE reduces neural activity in PFC and increases neural activity in brain areas associated with reactive, automatized responses to stimulation (Arnsten, 2000).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Early stress, brain development, and cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arnsten, 2000 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The provision of competent caregiving in early compensatory care and education would be expected, in theory, to have effects on developing self-regulation in children experiencing high levels of disrupted caregiving that are in part mediated through stress reactivity and PFC functioning.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Implications for early intervention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, early life stress, which is more frequent in the context of poverty, would attenuate developing self-regulation in children characterized by high reactivity and begin to shape developmental trajectories toward nonoptimal outcomes.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Early life stress is more frequent in poverty.
In the paper
“Similarly, Bredy, Humpartzoomian, Cain, and Meaney (2003) demonstrated that the effects of low maternal caregiving competence on hippocampally dependent learning and memory could be reversed at the behavioral level through environmental enrichment but that the physiological function of the hippocampus was not altered in expected ways.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Stress and development: Implications for early intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bredy, Humpartzoomian, Cain, and Meaney, 2003
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reactivity is more likely in high-quality care to promote aspects of cognition and behavior important for reflective self-regulation but in low-quality care to promote reactive responses to stimulation.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although evidence from animal models is compelling because of its specificity and high level of control, the extent to which neural and physiological mechanisms relating stress, early caregiving, and developmental outcomes might be at work in human populations remains open to question.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, early compensatory education and care interventions to promote learning and increase the regulation of reactivity through various activities with caring and supportive others in a predictable, stimulating environment would be expected to promote competencies such as EF and self-control that are important contributors to ongoing success in life.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chronic early rearing stress affects the activity of stress response systems with consequences for the regulation of cognition and behavior.”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increasing numbers of studies in human populations indicate that single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with glucocorticoid and catecholamine activity in PFC corticolimbic circuitry are related to variation in EF and perhaps, to some extent, susceptibility to early stress effects on cognition (Hariri, Drabant, & Weinberger, 2006; Pezawas et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2007).”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal models about early stress, prefrontal connectivity, and executive functions can be generalized to human children.
“Relations among early experience, PFC connectivity, and EFs demonstrated in animal models are important for child development research in that EFs describe information processing abilities that allow for actively maintaining and processing task-relevant information in working memory”
“Although early rearing environments for children differ in many ways from those of rats, the caregiving environment for children facing low SES is more likely than typical home environments to be disorganized and lacking in appropriate stimulation and support”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early life stress is more frequent in poverty.
“early life stress, which is more frequent in the context of poverty”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In supportive and structured environments, however, regulation of stress hormones would occur and facilitate reflective and flexible forms of behavior and cognition, such as executive functions (Blair, 2010).”
From Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood (2011) · cites this paper as Blair, 2010
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > Conclusion
“(Panksepp, Burgdorf, Turner, & Gordon, 2002; van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 2000)”
§ Stress and the Development of Self-Regulation in Context > References
“74. Panksepp J Burgdorf J Turner C Gordon N Modeling ADHD-type arousal with unilateral frontal cortex damage in rats and beneficial effects of play therapy Brain and Cognition 2003 52 97 105”
Citations
Cites
Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., McClay, J., Mill, J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A., et al. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1083968 · Cited by 8,120 · cited 2×
“Examples of gene– environment interaction in the study of stress and development (Caspi et al., 2003) have also made clear that research incorporating information on genetic background can lead to a more specific understanding of the mechanisms through which the stress response and early care are…”
BackgroundThe relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908) · Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology · doi:10.1002/cne.920180503 · Cited by 6,911
Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior
Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., Dymov, S., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2004) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1276 · Cited by 6,177 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundDickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355 · Cited by 5,881 · cited 1×
“This is because higher levels of social support are associated with faster glucocorticoid (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004) and presumably catecholamine recovery from stress.”
BackgroundSocioeconomic disadvantage and child development
McLoyd, V. C. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.2.185 · Cited by 3,763 · cited 3×
“…of Applied Psychology, New York University, 246 Greene Street, Kimball Hall, 8th floor, New York, NY 10003; e-mail: eclancy.blair@nyu.edu. ª 2010 The Author Child Development Perspectives ª 2010 The Society for Research in Child Development Volume 4, Number 3 Shanahan, 1993; McLoyd, 1998).”
BackgroundSkill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children
Heckman, J. J. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1128898 · Cited by 3,559 · cited 1×
“In the evaluation of model early intervention programs, there is an increasing recognition of the importance of personality and social competence factors associated with self-control and on aspects of cognition, such as EFs, that are distinct from general intelligence (Heckman, 2006, 2007).”
BackgroundThe concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00024-7 · Cited by 3,302 · cited 1×
“…CONTEXT OF POVERTY In humans, primarily in research with adults, chronically stressful environments result in sustained demands on stress response systems that are ultimately pathogenic in a variety of disease states, a phenomenon known as allostatic load (McEwen, 2000; McEwen & Wingfield, 2003).”
BackgroundLiu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., Sharma, S., Pearson, D., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5332.1659 · Cited by 3,170 · cited 2×
“…in the hippocampus, the development of an efficient HPA stress response system, and what can be considered as advantageous cognitive and social developmental outcomes in typical environments with adequate resources (Caldji, Diorio, & Meaney, 2000; Liu et al., 1997, 2000; Weaver et al., 2004).”
BackgroundExecutive functions and developmental psychopathology.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x · Cited by 3,150 · cited 1×
“…social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental disorders and psychopathologies in children (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Zelazo & Müller, 2002).”
BackgroundBlair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x · Cited by 3,140 · cited 1×
“In humans, Child Development Perspectives, Vo EFs have been related to multiple aspects of developing social and cognitive competence (Blair & Razza, 2007; Carlson & Moses, 2001; Hughes & Ensor, 2007), and impairments in EFs are a salient aspect of cognitive deficits in a number of developmental…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Barnard, 1997, The effectiveness of early intervention, 249
- Bryant, 1997, The effectiveness of early intervention, 23
- Ramey, 1991, Children in poverty, 190
- Zelazo, 2002, Handbook of childhood cognitive development, 445
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Childhood Poverty, Chronic Stress, Self-Regulation, and Coping
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12013 · Cited by 962
“self-control, they have more trouble delaying gratification, they manifest attentional-control problems, they exhibit weaker inhibitory control, and they have diminished capacity for working memory (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; Evans et al., 2005; Hackman, Farah, & Meaney, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialWright, M. O., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_2 · Cited by 832
Bridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., & Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038662 · Cited by 730
“Such reasoning has already appeared in the literature on SR (Blair, 2010) and allostatic load (see McEwen, 1998 or Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007).”
The development of self-regulation across early childhood.
Montroy, J. J., Bowles, R. P., Skibbe, L. E., McClelland, M. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2016) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000159 · Cited by 629
“Heterogeneity in behavioral self-regulation development Several prominent theories suggest the possibility of multiple self-regulation growth trajectories across early childhood (see Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; 2015; Calkins, 2007; Lerner & Overton, 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBlair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., Kivlighan, K. T., Fortunato, C. K., & the FLP Investigators (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01643.x · Cited by 579
“In supportive and structured environments, however, regulation of stress hormones would occur and facilitate reflective and flexible forms of behavior and cognition, such as executive functions (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNurturing Mindfulness in Children and Youth: Current State of Research
Greenberg, M. T., & Harris, A. R. (2012) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00215.x · Cited by 480
“These processes are also highly relevant to educational goals and academic success (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundSocial Structure, Adversity, Toxic Stress, and Intergenerational Poverty: An Early Childhood Model
McEwen, C. A., & McEwen, B. S. (2017) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053252 · Cited by 472
Ursache, A., Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2011) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00209.x · Cited by 504
“…growing up in poverty, early childhood experiences are more likely to lead to levels of arousal in emotion, attention, and stress response systems that do not foster optimal EF and that may lead to more reactive and less reflective responses to stimulation (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, in press).”
Self-citationRaver, C. C., Family Life Project Key Investigators, Blair, C., & Willoughby, M. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028343 · Cited by 422
“Recently, several innovative theoretical and analytic approaches have been taken to model the role of multiple dimensions of family economic disadvantage over time in predicting young children’s outcomes (Blair, 2010; Hutto, Waldfogel, Kaushal, & Garfinkel, 2011; Magnuson & Votruba-Drzal, 2009).”
Self-citationGarner, A., Yogman, M., COMMITTEE ON PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF CHILD AND FAMILY HEALTH, Lavin, A., Askew, G. L., Baum, R. A., Berger-Jenkins, E., Johnson, T. J., Jutte, D., Nasir, A. A., et al. (2021) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2021-052582 · Cited by 392
Shonkoff, J. P., & Fisher, P. A. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579413000813 · Cited by 362
“…that create barriers to learning and impairments in other maturing organs and metabolic regulatory functions that can lead to lifelong problems in physical and mental health (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; Gunnar, 2000; Gunnar & Vazquez, 2006; Miller & Chen, 2013; Shonkoff et al., 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundFuhs, M. W., & McNeil, N. M. (2012) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12013 · Cited by 348
Kim‐Spoon, J., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01857.x · Cited by 365
“The findings suggest that early stress may present risks for disturbances in emotional systems (Blair, 2010; Shields & Cicchetti, 1998) and ultimately for increases in internalizing symptomatology.”
BackgroundContributions of executive function and spatial skills to preschool mathematics achievement
Verdine, B. N., Irwin, C. M., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.02.012 · Cited by 341
“Children from low-SES (socioeconomic status) backgrounds often perform below their middleincome peers on measures of EF (Blair, 2010), and the relationship between EF and early mathematics performance appears to be influenced, at least in part, by experiential factors associated with SES (Aunola et…”
InfluentialUnderstanding and promoting resilience in children and youth
Sapienza, J. K., & Masten, A. S. (2011) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e32834776a8 · Cited by 297
Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Waters, N. E., & Davis-Kean, P. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000296 · Cited by 293
Ursache, A., & Noble, K. G. (2015) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12547 · Cited by 252
“The stresses of poverty may lead to poorer parenting behaviors, which may in turn be a primary cause of stress for children (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialMontroy, J. J., Bowles, R. P., Skibbe, L. E., & Foster, T. D. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.03.002 · Cited by 277
Allostasis and allostatic load in the context of poverty in early childhood
Blair, C., Raver, C. C., Granger, D. A., Mills-Koonce, R., Hibel, L. C., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators (2011) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000344 · Cited by 263
“…over the possible affects of poverty on stress physiology in children (Evans, 2003) and the idea that affects of poverty on stress physiology may be a primary mechanism through which poverty has widespread influence on child health and development (Blair, 2010; Shonkoff, Boyce, & McEwen, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSwami, V., Furnham, A. F., Smyth, N., Weis, L., Lay, A., & Clow, A. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.084 · Cited by 219
Childhood personality as a harbinger of competence and resilience in adulthood
Shiner, R. L., & Masten, A. S. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000120 · Cited by 214
“Nonetheless, there is other evidence that extreme adversity, including significant poverty, has negative effects on personality development, including children’s emerging self-regulatory skills (Blair, 2010; Hart, Atkins, & Matsuba, 2008).”
BackgroundEnhancing Preschoolers’ Self-Regulation Via Mindful Yoga
Razza, R. A., Bergen‐Cico, D., & Raymond, K. (2013) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9847-6 · Cited by 240
“Indeed, mindfulness and inhibitory control are thought to be interrelated, as research suggests that they share common neuroendocrine functions related to stress (i.e., cortisol response; Blair 2010; Tang et al. 2007).”
BackgroundExecutive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement
Nesbitt, K. T., Baker-Ward, L. E., & Willoughby, M. T. (2013) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.005 · Cited by 207
Individual development and evolution: Experiential canalization of self-regulation.
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026472 · Cited by 190
“A central question here, however, concerns the extent to which the environment actively shapes variation in self-regulation profiles (Blair, 2010) or fine-tunes existing differences among individuals (Del Giudice et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTeacher–student relationships and school adjustment: progress and remaining challenges
Hughes, J. N. (2012) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2012.672288 · Cited by 210
“Given the well-established effects of stress on learning (Blair, 2010), these results provide strong evidence for the academic benefit of the provision of an emotionally positive learning environment.”
BackgroundUrsache, A., Noble, K. G., & Blair, C. (2015) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2015.1024604 · Cited by 179
“Furthermore, links between poverty and children’s selfregulation may be accounted for by increased family stress.(1,10) It may therefore be important to examine more direct indicators of the extent to which families perceive their lives as stressful.”
Self-citationChildhood Cumulative Risk and Obesity: The Mediating Role of Self-Regulatory Ability
Evans, G. W., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., & Doan, S. N. (2012) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2010-3647 · Cited by 158
Ursache, A., The Family Life Project Investigators, Blair, C., Stifter, C., & Voegtline, K. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027728 · Cited by 151
Self-citationMcClelland, M. M., Geldhof, J. G., Morrison, F., Gestsdóttir, S., Cameron, C. E., Bowers, E., Duckworth, A. L., Little, T. D., & Grammer, J. K. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47143-3_12 · Cited by 168
Obradović, J. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000053 · Cited by 153
“Heightened stress reactivity has been linked to poor performance on EF tasks (Blair, 2010; Lisonbee, Pendry, Mize, & Gwynn, 2010; Qin, Hermans, van Marle, Luo, & Fernández, 2009; Williams, Suchy, & Rau, 2009).”
Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2014) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721414531597 · Cited by 136
“Also as indicated in the figure, these processes are likely to be altered as a function of the broader family context, with chronic stressors disrupting healthy development of EF and related skills (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundKaunhoven, R. J., & Dorjee, D. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.007 · Cited by 130
Relational Resilience in Girls
Jordan, J. V. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_5 · Cited by 131
Wolf, S., & McCoy, D. C. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12800 · Cited by 146
“Given that stress is a known risk factor for both EF and SE development (Blair, 2010), it is possible that simply removing the threat of punishment as the result of improved academic skills could also indirectly support children’s non-academic growth, as well.”
BackgroundMindfulness and Inhibitory Control in Early Adolescence
Oberle, E., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Lawlor, M. S., & Thomson, K. (2011) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431611403741 · Cited by 145
“…studies with humans have revealed a significant relationship between different domains of self-regulation, such as EFs; social, emotional, and cognitive competence; and physiological measures of stress reactivity and HPA activity (see Blair, 2010, for a review; see also Diamond & Aspinwall, 2003).”
BackgroundHackman, D. A., Betancourt, L. M., Gallop, R., Römer, D., Brodsky, N. L., Hurt, H., & Farah, M. J. (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12242 · Cited by 112
“It is generally correlated with child and family stress as well as parenting behavior (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; Conger & Donnellan, 2007; Evans, 2004), factors that would be expected to impact the development of neurocognitive systems including working memory (Bernier, Carlson, Deschenes, & Matte-Gagne, 2012; Blair, 20…”
BackgroundMendelson, T., Tandon, S. D., O'Brennan, L., Leaf, P. J., & Ialongo, N. S. (2015) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.05.017 · Cited by 113
“These program components promote self-regulatory abilities and decision-making, capacities often impaired as a result of stress exposure (Blair, 2010), which predict school success.”
BackgroundRoy, A. L., McCoy, D. C., & Raver, C. C. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036984 · Cited by 112
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript in the prefrontal cortex and higher order cognitive processing, or executive function (Badanes, Watamura, & Hankin, 2011; Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundEvans, G. W., & Fuller‐Rowell, T. E. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12082 · Cited by 122
A Hierarchical Integrated Model of Self-Regulation
Blair, C., & Ku, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.725828 · Cited by 133
“The first author has expounded on this model in several publications (Blair, 2010, 2014; Blair and Ursache, 2011; Blair and Raver, 2012, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGrowing Up With Assets and Risks: The Importance of Self-Regulation for Academic Achievement
McClelland, M. M., & Wanless, S. B. (2012) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2012.729907 · Cited by 116
“These children may also have higher levels of stress, which interferes with the development of prefrontal cortex, experience more family and housing instability, and have fewer learning and economic resources (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012).”
BackgroundScreen Time and Executive Function in Toddlerhood: A Longitudinal Study
McHarg, G., Ribner, A., Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570392 · Cited by 129
“Furthermore, several environmental factors including aspects of parenting (e.g., Hughes et al., 2013; Fay-Stammbach et al., 2014; Hughes and Devine, 2019), child care (e.g., Duncan et al., 2019), and stress (Blair, 2010) are associated with the development of young children’s EF.”
BackgroundChildren’s Cognitive Performance and Selective Attention Following Recent Community Violence
McCoy, D. C., Raver, C. C., & Sharkey, P. T. (2015) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146514567576 · Cited by 99
Lyons‐Ruth, K., Manly, J. T., von Klitzing, K., Tamminen, T., Emde, R. N., Fitzgerald, H. E., Paul, C., Keren, M., Berg, A., Foley, M., et al. (2017) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21674 · Cited by 98
Finders, J. K., McClelland, M. M., Geldhof, G. J., Rothwell, D. W., & Hatfield, B. E. (2020) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.07.008 · Cited by 109
Merz, E. C., Landry, S. H., Montroy, J. J., & Williams, J. M. (2016) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12204 · Cited by 104
“At a neurobiological level, parental responsiveness has been found to promote the regulation of stress physiology (Hostinar, Sullivan, & Gunnar, 2014) which in turn is linked with EF development (Blair, 2010; Blair et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRobinson, L. E., Palmer, K. K., & Bub, K. L. (2016) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2016.00173 · Cited by 103
“Evidence supports that children growing up in poverty and ethnic minority children, typically exhibit lower inhibitory control and delayed gratification along with increased problems associated with attention and working memory (20, 21).”
BackgroundBrandes-Aitken, A. N., Braren, S. H., Swingler, M. M., Voegtline, K., & Blair, C. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.04.006 · Cited by 98
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript environment, and the quality of early parenting (Blair, 2010; Raver, 2004; Zeytinoglu, Calkins, Swingler, & Leerkes, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMeasuring Stress in Young Children Using Hair Cortisol: The State of the Science
Bates, R., Salsberry, P., & Ford, J. (2017) · Biological Research For Nursing · doi:10.1177/1099800417711583 · Cited by 88
“…2006; Gunnar & Donzella, 2002; Kaufman et al., 1997), naptime (Gunnar & Donzella, 2002; Watamura, Donzella, Kertes, & Gunnar, 2004), and developing temperament, a product of gene–environment interactions (Blair, 2010; Chen & Schmidt, 2015; Rothbart, 2011; Rowe, Jacobson, & Van den Oord, 1999).”
Diversity and representation: Key issues for psychophysiological science
Gatzke‐Kopp, L. M. (2015) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12566 · Cited by 86
Aiyer, S. M., Heinze, J. E., Miller, A. L., Stoddard, S. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0097-8 · Cited by 89
“Researchers have found, for example, that the stress response may become blunted when children are consistently exposed to consistent, high levels of contextual stress (Blair 2010).”
Obradović, J. (2016) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12164 · Cited by 84
“sal and associated neurological activity; in such contexts, these children respond to stimulation reflectively rather than reactively (19).”
BackgroundMonahan, K. C., King, K. M., Shulman, E. P., Cauffman, E. E., & Chassin, L. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579414001394 · Cited by 85
“In addition to behavioral evidence, neurological evidence from both animal and human studies suggests that exposure to violence may affect the development of self-regulation (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundEarly Violence Exposure and Self-Regulatory Development: A Bioecological Systems Perspective
McCoy, D. C. (2013) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000353217 · Cited by 84
“…brain regions [including the limbic system and parts of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)] that is responsible for sensory processing, emotion/threat identification, higher-level cognition, and reflective regulation [Blair, 2010; Evans & Kim, 2007; Ganzel, Morris, & Wethington, 2010].”
BackgroundInfluentialMurray, D., Rosanbalm, K. D., Christopoulos, C., & Hamoudi, A. (2015) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 83
Marital relationship, parenting practices, and social skills development in preschool children
Hosokawa, R., & Katsura, T. (2017) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-016-0139-y · Cited by 81
“Chronic cumulative stressors disrupt self-regulatory processes that help children cope with external demands [41, 42].”
BackgroundBlank, A., Holt, R. F., Pisoni, D. B., & Kronenberger, W. G. (2020) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2019_jslhr-19-00230 · Cited by 82
“Additionally, increased parenting stress can affect physiological processes underlying early brain development critical for supporting emergent EF abilities (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012).”
BackgroundResultAlcántara, C., Diaz, S. V., Cosenzo, L. G., Loucks, E. B., Penedo, F. J., & Williams, N. J. (2020) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2020.1718527 · Cited by 74
“This is particularly important for health behavior change interventions targeting self-regulation skills, which are developed initially in childhood and impacted by social determinants such as poverty (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundBergen‐Cico, D., Razza, R. A., & Timmins, A. C. (2015) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0146-2 · Cited by 94
“HPA function is associated with stress response, and more specifically with both cognitive and behavioral control; it is commonly indexed via diurnal cortisol output (Blair 2010).”
BackgroundHow Poverty Gets Under the Skin: A Life Course Perspective
Evans, G. W., Chen, E., Miller, G. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199769100.013.0001 · Cited by 81
Preschoolers' Executive Function: Importance, Contributors, Research Needs and Assessment Options
Ackerman, D. J., & Friedman‐Krauss, A. H. (2017) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12148 · Cited by 103
“© 2017 Educational Testing Service 7 to stress (often poverty related) can alter brain structure and function, particularly affecting the prefrontal cortex (Arnsten, 2000, 2009; Blair, 2010; Blair, Granger, & Razza, 2005; Blair & Raver, 2012; R. J. Duncan, 2012; Twardosz, 2012).”
Cadima, J., Gamelas, A. M., McClelland, M. M., & Peixoto, C. (2015) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2015.1005729 · Cited by 75
“Chronic stress in the form of chronic activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis can result in downstream effects on cortical structures important for the development of behavioral regulation (Blair, 2010; Evans & Kim, 2013; Kiss, Fechete, Pop, & Susa, 2014).”
BackgroundPoverty and the Development of Psychopathology
Wadsworth, M. E., Evans, G. W., Grant, K. E., Carter, J. S., & Duffy, S. N. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy404 · Cited by 83
Adversity in adolescence predicts personality trait change from childhood to adulthood
Shiner, R. L., Allen, T. A., & Masten, A. S. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.10.002 · Cited by 68
Emslander, V., & Scherer, R. (2022) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000369 · Cited by 92
“Furthermore, studies have reported that socioeconomic status is related to EFs (Blair, 2010) and influences their relation to math skills (Noble et al.”
BackgroundAnnual Research Review: Developmental pathways linking early behavioral inhibition to later anxiety
Fox, N. A., Zeytinoglu, S., Valadez, E. A., Buzzell, G. A., Morales, S., & Henderson, H. A. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13702 · Cited by 87
“…behaviors would allow children to learn how to sustain moderate levels of arousal conducive to exerting planful forms of control (Arnsten, 2009; Blair, 2010; Zeytinoglu, Calkins, & Leerkes, 2022) and regulate their attention and emotions to solve problems effectively (Fox & Calkins, 2003).”
Background“How does the broader construct of self-regulation relate to emotion regulation in young children?”
Gagne, J. R., Liew, J., & Nwadinobi, O. K. (2021) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2021.100965 · Cited by 90
Gonzales, C. R., Bowles, R. P., Geldhof, G. J., Cameron, C. E., Tracy, A., & McClelland, M. M. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.03.008 · Cited by 79
Murray, D. W., Rosanbalm, K. D., Christopoulos, C., & Meyer, A. L. (2019) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-019-00556-1 · Cited by 80
Biological Sensitivity to Family Income: Differential Effects on Early Executive Functioning
Obradović, J., Portilla, X. A., & Ballard, P. J. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12475 · Cited by 71
“Together, these findings suggest that moderately elevated levels of arousal may help children cope with laboratory challenges and perform better on cognitive tasks, which is consistent with the inverted U-curve association between stress hormones and cognition demonstrated in adults and animal models (Blair, 2010; Lup…”
BackgroundResultShaw, D. S., Mendelsohn, A. L., & Morris, P. A. (2021) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-021-00366-0 · Cited by 64
“…readiness including: cognitive and language capacities (Dahl & Lcohner, 2012; Milligan & Stabile, 2011), emergent literacy and numeracy (Duncan et al., 1998; 2011), social-emotional development (Milligan & Stabile, 2011), and self-regulation (Blair, 2010; Evans & Kim, 2013; Hails et al., 2019).”
Childhood trauma moderates inhibitory control and anterior cingulate cortex activation during stress
Zhai, Z. W., Yip, S. W., Lacadie, C., Sinha, R., Mayes, L. C., & Potenza, M. N. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.049 · Cited by 67
D’Angiulli, A., Weinberg, J., Oberlander, T. F., GRUNAU, R. E., Hertzman, C., & Maggi, S. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00306 · Cited by 61
Micalizzi, L., Brick, L. A. D., Flom, M., Ganiban, J. M., & Saudino, K. J. (2019) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.01.007 · Cited by 65
“Finally, it may be the case that SES directly impacts brain function and structure associated with set-shifting abilities (e.g., Blair, 2010; Kishiyama et al., 2008; Noble et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialRaver, C. C., McCoy, D. C., Lowenstein, A. E., & Pess, R. A. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12027 · Cited by 71
“…Recent evidence suggests that poverty places children's executive function and, consequently, their chances of academic success in serious jeopardy (Blair, 2010; Bull, Espy, Wiebe, Sheffield & Nelson, 2011; Hackman & Farah, 2009; Sarsour, Sheridan, Jutte, Nuru-Jeter, Hinshaw & Boyce, 2011).”
InfluentialBradshaw, C. P., Goldweber, A., Fishbein, D. H., & Greenberg, M. T. (2012) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.04.020 · Cited by 62
“Changes in structural and functional connectivity, aswell as increased dopaminergic activity in pathways linking limbic, striatial, and prefrontal areas, have been associated with changes in reward-directed neural activity [8,9].”
BackgroundAzar, S. T., Stevenson, M. T., & Johnson, D. R. (2012) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2011.615460 · Cited by 57
Farley, J. P., & Kim‐Spoon, J. (2015) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431615611253 · Cited by 58
“…grow up with low family SES are more likely to experience self-regulatory deficits than those with higher family SES because high levels of chronic stress produce longterm damage to regulatory systems, such as hindering neural development in the prefrontal cortex (Blair, 2010; Evans & Kim, 2013).”
BackgroundDuncan, R. J., McClelland, M. M., & Acock, A. C. (2017) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2017.01.004 · Cited by 68
“Highly stressful environments cause increased neural reactivity in children, and without the necessary supportive resources (i.e., high quality childcare or home environments), can contribute to lower levels of EF and behavioral regulation (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundVogel, S. C., Perry, R. E., Brandes-Aitken, A. N., Braren, S. H., & Blair, C. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100907 · Cited by 72
“Within the field of research on child development specifically in lowSES contexts, a number of models have been proposed to understand the driving mechanisms linking poverty to variability in children’s developmental outcomes (Blair, 2010; Conger and Donnellan, 2007; Conger et al., 2010; Masarik and Conger, 2017; Nobl…”
Self-citationPutwain, D. W., & Pescod, M. (2017) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000228 · Cited by 56
“Adolescent students may yet have developed the regulative, coping, or study skills of older students (e.g., Blair, 2010; Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Eggum, 2010; Lerner et al., 2011).”
The Role of Planning Skills in the Income–Achievement Gap
Crook, S. R., & Evans, G. W. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12129 · Cited by 55
“Electronic mail may be sent to gwe1@ cornell.edu. early experiences of deprivation and chronic stress (Blair, 2010; Blair & Raver, 2012; Evans & Kim, 2013).”
Kliewer, W. L. (2015) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0398-6 · Cited by 56
“Overall, these and other studies reveal a tendency for victimized youth to show a blunted cortisol response, perhaps as an adaptation to chronic stress and hypersecretion of cortisol over a period of time (Blair 2010; Trickett et al. 2010).”
Childhood cumulative risk and later allostatic load: Mediating role of substance use.
Doan, S. N., Dich, N., & Evans, G. W. (2013) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034790 · Cited by 51
Examining how rural ecological contexts influence children’s early learning opportunities
Iruka, I. U., DeKraai, M., Walther, J., Sheridan, S. M., & Abdel-Monem, T. (2020) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.09.005 · Cited by 51
“Psychosocial stress in the conext of poverty can directly impact children’s brain development nd neurological functioning, evidenced by their inability to selfegulate and be goal-directed, which are important cognitive skills Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundPoverty and Single Parenting: Relations with Preschoolers' Cortisol and Effortful Control
Zalewski, M., Lengua, L. J., Fisher, P. A., Trancik, A., Bush, N. R., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2012) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1759 · Cited by 54
“Poverty, an environmental context defined by unpredictability and uncontrollability, impacts children’s stress physiology, including the developing hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis (HPA axis) and executive functioning systems (Blair, 2010).”
Self-Regulation in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Challenges and Future Directions
Haslam, D. M., Mejía, A., Thomson, D., & Betancourt, T. S. (2019) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-019-00278-0 · Cited by 48
Ramsdal, G. H., Bergvik, S., & Wynn, R. (2015) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1072224 · Cited by 63
“Due to the well-documented link between stress and learning (Blair, 2010), such dysregulation would most likely disturb children’s academic performance over time.”
BackgroundJoos, C. M., Wodzinski, A., Wadsworth, M. E., & Dorn, L. D. (2018) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2018.05.001 · Cited by 47
Vitiello, V. E., Nguyen, T., Ruzek, E. A., Pianta, R. C., & Whittaker, J. V. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.11.009 · Cited by 53
Stacks, A. M., Beeghly, M., Partridge, T., & Dexter, C. A. (2011) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559511427957 · Cited by 51
“…indicating that many maltreated children placed in nonparental care continue to exhibit developmental problems and that subtle forms of maltreatment, which may not lead to removal from parental care, result in negative developmental consequences (Blair, 2010; Bugental, Martorell, & Barraza, 2003).”
BackgroundTesting Models of Children's Self-regulation Within Educational Contexts
Raver, C. C., Carter, J. S., McCoy, D. C., Roy, A. L., Ursache, A., & Friedman, A. (2012) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394388-0.00007-1 · Cited by 52
“…skill represents one, but not the only, ingredient that contributes to children’s success in school is probably the reason that attention to “selfregulation,” “emotional intelligence,” and “executive function” enjoy such prominence in much educational research lately (see Blair, 2010 for review).”
BackgroundVekety, B., Logemann, H. N. A., & Takács, Z. K. (2020) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025420958192 · Cited by 61
“, 2012), low socioeconomic status (SES) and poverty (Blair, 2010), divorce of the parents (Weaver & Schofield, 2015), early overexposure to electronic media (Cheng et al.”
BackgroundNielsen, K. S., Bauer, J. M., & Hofmann, W. (2019) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103901 · Cited by 44
Belojević, G., Evans, G. W., Paunović, K., & Jakovljević, B. D. (2012) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.05.005 · Cited by 45
“Human work also shows that toxic stress during childhood interferes with healthy EF including disruptions in behavioral inhibition, difficulties to both maintain and switch attention, and diminished working memory capacity (Blair, 2010; Hackman & Farah, 2009; Shonkoff et al., 2012).”
BackgroundDeer, L. K., Hastings, P. D., & Hostinar, C. E. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13383 · Cited by 55
Income, neural executive processes, and preschool children's executive control
Ruberry, E. J., Lengua, L. J., Crocker, L. H., Bruce, J., Upshaw, M. B., & Sommerville, J. A. (2016) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941600002x · Cited by 46
“…Wilson, & Graham, 2010; Lengua, Moran, et al., 2014; Li-Grining, 2007; Mezzacappa, 2004; Raver, Blair, & Willoughby, 2013), which has been proposed as a mechanism for their increased risk for later adjustment problems (Blair, 2010; Hackman, Gallop, Evans, & Farah, 2015; Raver et al., 2011, 2013).”
BackgroundObradović, J., & Finch, J. E. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12476 · Cited by 49
“In turn, physiological arousal can facilitate or hinder cognitive performance, including direct assessment of EF skills (Blair, 2010).”
BackgroundHousehold instability and self-regulation among poor children
McCoy, D. C., & Raver, C. C. (2014) · Journal of Children and Poverty · doi:10.1080/10796126.2014.976185 · Cited by 45
“in particular by early environmental stressors (Blair 2010; Blair and Razza 2007; McCoy 2013).”
BackgroundChildhood Antisocial Behavior: A Neurodevelopmental Problem
van Goozen, S. H. M., Langley, K., & Hobson, C. W. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-052621-045243 · Cited by 43
“…psychosocial adversity, make it difficult for children to predict and anticipate sequences of events, and elicit chronic and recurring stress (e.g., Blair, 2010) — effects that are likely to impair the prefrontal – amygdala – striatal system and to affect emotion and cognitive development…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Blair, C.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Blair, Clancy
- ORCID
- Blair, Clancy
- Venue
- Child Development Perspectives
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-11-15
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 181-188
- ISSN
- 1750-8592 (ISSN-L)
- 1750-8606
- PMC
- PMC3138186
- OpenAlex
- W1509600221
- Semantic Scholar
- e8bd68422006a96ca29c5f492938e1cb862229bd
- Cited by
- 379
- References
- 101
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 6.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Child Development Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P01HD039667, R03HD039750, R01HD051502)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- psychosocial stress, child development, self-regulation, executive function, poverty, glucocorticoids, catecholamines, artificial neural networks, stress reactivity, risk and resilience, developmental delay prevention, early intervention
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-06, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-06 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
