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Cited by 1,305Coastal and Marine ManagementCoral and Marine Ecosystems StudiesMarine animal studies overview

Marine defaunation: Animal loss in the global ocean

Open access
McCauley, Douglas J., Pinsky, Malin L., Palumbi, Stephen R., Estes, James A., Joyce, Francis H., Warner, Robert R.·2015·Science
DOI 10.1126/science.1255641
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Abstract

Marine animals are disappearing, too: The loss of animal species in terrestrial environments has been well documented and is continuing. Loss of species in marine environments has been slower than in terrestrial systems, but appears to be increasing rapidly. McCauley et al. review the recent patterns of species decline and loss in marine environments. Though they note many worrying declines, they also highlight approaches that might allow us to prevent the type of massive defaunation that has occurred on land. Science , this issue 10.1126/science.1255641

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that marine defaunation started much later than terrestrial defaunation but is now accelerating because of industrial-scale ocean use. Although few marine species have gone globally extinct, widespread local, ecological, and commercial losses already affect ocean ecosystems and human well-being, and proactive management could still prevent a terrestrial-scale collapse.

Key findings

  • The IUCN records 15 global marine animal extinctions over the past 514 years and none in the last five decades, compared with 514 terrestrial animal extinctions over the same period; although about six times more terrestrial species have been cataloged, this does not explain the roughly 36-fold difference in extinctions.
  • Marine vertebrates declined in abundance by an average of 22% over the last four decades, marine fishes by 38% in aggregate, and some baleen whales by 80 to 90%; roughly 90% of studied large pelagic fishes showed range contractions, and about one-third of reliably trawled North American marine fishes and invertebrates also showed contractions.
  • Defaunation includes local, ecological, and commercial extinctions: gray whales became commercially untenable by 1900, Antarctic great whales were serially hunted to commercial extinction, and some high-value species such as bluefin tuna can remain targets even when rare.
  • Future risk is expected to intensify through climate change and habitat degradation; only about 3.6% of the ocean is protected at an upper-bound estimate, the median marine protected area is 4.5 km², and habitat-modifying fishing has affected roughly 50 million km² of seafloor.

Methods

  • This is a review and synthesis comparing marine and terrestrial defaunation, not a new primary empirical study.
  • It draws on sources including IUCN Red List assessments, FAO data, published population and range-contraction studies, global habitat indicators, and comparative data on body size and mobility.
  • The main analysis is a narrative cross-system comparison, supported by supplementary materials, figures, and tables.

Limitations

  • The paper states that only a small fraction of described marine species have been assessed by the IUCN, many assessed species are data deficient, and reported extinction and endangerment numbers should therefore be treated as minimum estimates.
  • The paper acknowledges abundant data deficiencies and notes that some comparisons, such as marine protected area size versus animal home ranges, are crude.
  • Evident from the text: the review relies on uneven existing datasets and interpretive projections rather than a formal meta-analysis or new quantitative model, so causal claims and future forecasts remain uncertain.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1126/science.1255641

Cites

269 of 269 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 45 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    Wildlife populations in oceans have been badly damaged by human activity.

    “Wildlife populations in the oceans have been badly damaged by human activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Effects of local extinction particularly severe among large pelagic fishes, where ~90% of studied species exhibited range contractions.

    “These effects have been particularly severe among large pelagic fishes, where ~90% of studied species have exhibited range contractions (8, 14) (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [8]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [14] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingreasoning

    Many most threatened groups of marine animals directly interact with land during some portion of life history.

    “Many of the most threatened groups of marine animals are those that directly interact with land (and land-based humans) during some portion of their life history (Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (Fig. 2)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingreasoning

    Available data suggest magnitude of range contractions for trawl-surveyed marine species is on average less than contractions observed for terrestrial mammals, birds, and butterflies.

    “Available data suggest that the magnitude of the range contractions for this diverse set of trawl-surveyed marine species is, on average, less than the contractions observed for terrestrial animals such as mammals, birds, and butterflies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Pinnipeds and marine mustelids, followed closely by seabirds and shorebirds, have experienced highest proportion of species extinctions.

    “Pinnipeds and marine mustelids, followed very closely by seabirds and shorebirds, have experienced the highest proportion of species extinctions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 26
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Humans have caused few global marine extinctions but have profoundly affected marine wildlife, altering functioning and services in every ocean.

    “Though humans have caused few global marine extinctions, we have profoundly affected marine wildlife, altering the functioning and provisioning of services in every ocean.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Defaunation has caused numerous geographic range constrictions in marine animal species, driving local extinction in many habitats.

    “Defaunation has caused numerous geographic range constrictions in marine animal species, driving them locally extinct in many habitats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Defaunation began in earnest tens of thousands of years later in oceans than on land.

    “Defaunation began in earnest tens of thousands of years later in the oceans than it did on land.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Humans have caused few complete marine extinctions but are responsible for many ecological, commercial, and local extinctions.

    “Humans have caused few complete extinctions in the sea, but we are responsible for many ecological, commercial, and local extinctions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Marine defaunation started forcefully only hundreds of years ago, while terrestrial defaunation began much earlier.

    “Marine defaunation, or human-caused animal loss in the oceans, emerged forcefully only hundreds of years ago, whereas terrestrial defaunation has been occurring far longer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Humans have profoundly decreased abundance of both large and small marine fauna.

    “Humans have profoundly decreased the abundance of both large (e.g., whales) and small (e.g., anchovies) marine fauna.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Human harvesters have been a major force of evolutionary change and have reshaped genetic structure of marine animal populations.

    “Human harvesters have also been a major force of evolutionary change in the oceans and have reshaped the genetic structure of marine animal populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Marine fauna generally are in better condition than terrestrial fauna: fewer extinctions, many ranges shrunk less, numerous ecosystems remain more wild.

    “Nevertheless, marine fauna generally are in better condition than terrestrial fauna: Fewer marine animal extinctions have occurred; many geographic ranges have shrunk less; and numerous ocean ecosystems remain more wild than terrestrial ecosystems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    As result of pressures, turtles, whales, sharks, and many large fishes are now ecologically extinct in many ecosystems, and size spectra of many communities have changed considerably.

    “As a result of such pressures, turtles, whales, sharks, and many large fishes are now ecologically extinct in many ecosystems, and the size spectra (abundance-body mass relationships) of many communities have changed considerably (7,30,31).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [7] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] source

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    • cites [31]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Although marine defaunation has been less severe than terrestrial, human effects on marine animals are increasing in pace and impact.

    “Although defaunation has been less severe in the oceans than on land, our effects on marine animals are increasing in pace and impact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Marine fishes have declined in aggregate by 38%, and certain baleen whales by 80 to 90%.

    “Marine fishes have declined in aggregate by 38% (17), and certain baleen whales by 80 to 90% (19).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Many subtidal marine habitats are currently less developed, less polluted, and wilder than comparable terrestrial habitats.

    “Few marine extinctions have occurred; many subtidal marine habitats are today less developed, less polluted, and more wild than their terrestrial counterparts; global body size distributions of extant marine animal species have been mostly unchanged in the oceans; and many marine fauna have not yet experienced range contractions as severe as those observed on land.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Land defaunation began long ago, while ocean defaunation has intensified only in the last few hundred years.

    “Defaunation has ancient origins on land but has intensified only within the last several hundred years in the oceans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Rates of extinction on land increased dramatically after industrial revolution, and we may now be at precipice of similar extinction transition in oceans.

    “Rates of extinction on land increased dramatically after this period, and we may now be sitting at the precipice of a similar extinction transition in the oceans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Effectively slowing ocean defaunation requires both protected areas and careful management of the intervening ocean matrix.

    “effectively slowing ocean defaunation requires both protected areas and careful management of the intervening ocean matrix;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Human dependency on marine wildlife and linked fate of marine and terrestrial fauna necessitate acting quickly to slow marine defaunation.

    “Human dependency on marine wildlife and the linked fate of marine and terrestrial fauna necessitate that we act quickly to slow the advance of marine defaunation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Declines in marine fauna can generate ecological changes that travel up and down food webs and alter ocean ecosystem functioning.

    “Such declines can generate waves of ecological change that travel both up and down marine food webs and can alter ocean ecosystem functioning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IUCN records only 15 global extinctions of marine animal species in past 514 years and none in past five decades.

    “The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) records only 15 global extinctions of marine animal species in the past 514 years (i.e., limit of IUCN temporal coverage) and none in the past five decades (8,9).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [8]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Protected areas are powerful but additional management strategies will be required.

    “Though protected areas are a powerful tool to harness ocean productivity, especially when designed with future climate in mind, additional management strategies will be required.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Meaningful rehabilitation of affected marine animal populations remains within reach of managers.

    “Consequently, meaningful rehabilitation of affected marine animal populations remains within the reach of managers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Proactive intervention can avert a marine defaunation disaster of the magnitude observed on land.

    “Proactive intervention can avert a marine defaunation disaster of the magnitude observed on land.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    On land, numerous large terrestrial species have gone extinct and size distribution of land-animal assemblages profoundly restructured.

    “By contrast, on land, we have observed the extinction of numerous large terrestrial species and a profound restructuring of the size distribution of land-animal species assemblages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Status of only small fraction of described marine animal species evaluated by IUCN, many assessed data deficient.

    “It is important to note that the status of only a small fraction of described marine animal species have been evaluated by the IUCN, and many assessed species were determined to be data deficient (11) (Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ecological extinctions are well known in terrestrial environments and have been demonstrated to be just as disruptive as species extinctions.

    “Ecological extinctions are well known in terrestrial environments and have been demonstrated to be just as disruptive as species extinctions (20).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    High mobility of many marine animals offers some increased, though limited, capacity to respond to climate stress, but also exposes many species to increased risk from other stressors.

    “The high mobility of many marine animals offers some increased, though limited, capacity for marine species to respond to climate stress, but it also exposes many species to increased risk from other stressors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Approximately six times more animal species cataloged on land than oceans, but this imbalance does not explain 36-fold difference between terrestrial and marine animal extinctions.

    “While approximately six times more animal species have been cataloged on land than in the oceans (10), this imbalance does not explain the 36-fold difference between terrestrial and marine animal extinctions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because humans are intensely reliant on ocean ecosystems for food and other services, they are deeply affected by forecasted changes.

    “Because humans are intensely reliant on ocean ecosystems for food and other ecosystem services, we are deeply affected by all of these forecasted changes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Climate change threatens to accelerate marine defaunation over the next century.

    “Climate change threatens to accelerate marine defaunation over the next century.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The oceans still hold a relatively large stock of raw faunal components.

    “All of this is a tall order, but the oceans remain relatively full of the raw faunal ingredients and still contain a sufficient degree of resilient capacity so that the goal of reversing the current crisis of marine defaunation remains within reach.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Time remains and mechanisms exist to prevent the kinds of defaunation disasters seen on land.

    “Humans have had profoundly deleterious impacts on marine animal populations, but there is still time and there exist mechanisms to avert the kinds of defaunation disasters observed on land.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Terrestrial animal impacts can alter marine animal ecology, and marine impacts can alter terrestrial ecology.

    “Impacts on terrestrial fauna can perturb the ecology of marine fauna (54) and vice versa (103).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [54] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [103] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    We are not inevitably bound to repeat the land defaunation pattern in the oceans, namely intensifying marine hunting until it collapses and then causing large-scale marine habitat alteration.

    “We are not necessarily doomed to helplessly recapitulate the defaunation processes observed on land in the oceans: intensifying marine hunting until it becomes untenable and then embarking on an era of large-scale marine habitat modification.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The sea otter, believed extinct in the early 1900s, was found again in 1938, protected, and has returned to a key ecological role across much of the coastal North Pacific and Bering Sea.

    “The sea otter, the ecological czar of many coastal ecosystems, was thought to be extinct in the early 1900s but was rediscovered in 1938, protected, and has resumed its key ecological role in large parts of the coastal North Pacific and Bering Sea (108).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [108] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Actions to reduce climate change, restore affected animal populations, and wisely manage new marine development will help alter the current trajectory of marine defaunation.

    “Efforts to slow climate change, rebuild affected animal populations, and intelligently engage the coming wave of new marine development activities will all help to change the present course of marine defaunation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
34 of 34

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The trajectory of terrestrial defaunation is a valid indicator for anticipating future marine defaunation.

    “If the trajectory of terrestrial defaunation is any indicator, we should anticipate that habitat alteration will ascend in importance as a future driver of marine defaunation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current trends in ocean use and industrialization will continue or intensify.

    “Current ocean trends, coupled with terrestrial defaunation lessons, suggest that marine defaunation rates will rapidly intensify as human use of the oceans industrializes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The condition of marine animal populations is mutually linked with terrestrial wildlife health and with human societal health.

    “Furthermore, the health of marine animal populations is interactively connected to the health of terrestrial wildlife populations-and to the health of society.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The United States set off 66 nuclear blasts above and below the water at Enewetak and Bikini Atoll reefs during the 1940s and 1950s.

    “The United States detonated 66 nuclear explosions above and below the water of these coral reefs in the 1940s and 1950s.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    An animal's mobility influences its risk of defaunation.

    “Because mobility shapes defaunation risk, we compare the size-standardized home range size of a representative selection of marine (blue) and terrestrial (green) vertebrates.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Extinction counts do not yield a 36-fold difference

    Minor

    The stated counts of 514 terrestrial and 15 marine animal extinctions give a ratio of about 34.27, not 36.

    Reported 36 · recomputed 34.266667

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 13

  1. S. R. Palumbi C. Sotka The Death and Life of Monterey Bay: A Story of Revival (Island Press Washington DC 2010).
  2. B. A. Barbaree thesis Oregon State University (2011).
  3. McKibben J. N., Nelson D. R., Patterns of movement and grouping of gray reef sharks, Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos, at Enewetak, Marshall Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci. 38, 89–110 (1986).
  4. S. Oksanen thesis University of Jyväskylä (2010).
  5. Shaver D. J., et al.., Movements and home ranges of adult male Kemp’s ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) in the Gulf of Mexico investigated by satellite telemetry. Chelonian Conserv. Biol. 4, 817–827 (2005).
  6. Renaud M. L., Carpenter J. A., Movements and submergence patterns of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) in the Gulf of Mexico determined through satellite telemetry. Bull. Mar. Sci. 55, 1–15 (1994).
  7. S. Schönn W. Scherzinger Eds. Der Steinkauz: Athene noctua (Ziemsen Wittenberg Germany 1991) vol. 606.
  8. Clark R. J., A field study of the short-eared owl, Asio Flammeus (Pontoppidan), in North America. Wildl. Monogr. 47, 3–67 (1975).
  9. Montoya A. B., Zwank P. J., Cardenas M., Breeding biology of aplomado falcons in desert grasslands of Chihuahua, Mexico. J. Field Ornithol. 68, 135–143 (1997).
  10. Zwank P. J., Kroel K. W., Levin D. M., Southward G. M., Rommé R. C., Habitat characteristics of Mexican spotted owls in southern New Mexico. J. Field Ornithol. 65, 324–334 (1994).
  11. K. Graszynski B. Komischke B.-U. Meyburg in Raptors in the New Millennium. Proceedings of the Sixth World Conference on Birds of Prey Eilat Israel (2002) pp. 62–75; http://raptor-research.de/pdfs/a_rp700p/a_rp706.pdf.
  12. N. J. Collar M. J. Crosby A. J. Stattersfield B. International Birds to watch 2: The world list of threatened birds; the official source for birds on the IUCN Red List (BirdLife International Cambridge UK 1994); www.opengrey.eu/item/display/10068/598793.
  13. Geffen E., Mendelssohn H., Home range use and seasonal movements of the Egyptian tortoise (Testudo kleinmanni) in the northwestern Negev, Israel. Herpetologica 44, 354–359 (1988).

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Related

Authors
McCauley, D. J., Pinsky, M. L., Palumbi, S. R., Estes, J. A., Joyce, F. H., & Warner, R. R.
Affiliations
  • University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
  • Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
  • Hopkins Marine Station (US)
  • University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
Corresponding author
McCauley, Douglas J.
ORCID
Venue
Science
Publisher
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published
2015-01-16
Volume
347
Issue
6219
Pages
1255641-1255641
ISSN
  • 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
  • 1095-9203
DOI
10.1126/science.1255641
OpenAlex
W2137011837
Semantic Scholar
81faacd7a521fd2e923227ab1dd01f199520e3df
Cited by
1,305
References
269
Citations by year
2026: 60 · 2025: 102 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 125 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 149 · 2018: 91 · 2017: 108 · 2016: 89 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 1
FWCI
25.28
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.sciencemag.org/about/science-licenses-journal-article-reuse (vor, 365 d)
Locations
  • Science (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation
  • Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Coastal and Marine Management
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Coral and Marine Ecosystems Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Marine animal studies overview
Keywords
animal losses, marine biodiversity loss, marine extinction, ecosystem services, habitat degradation, marine protected areas, ocean productivity, climate change, marine conservation management
MeSH terms
Animals, Animals, Wild, Humans, Human Activities, Oceans and Seas, Population Dynamics, Seawater, Ecosystem, Biodiversity, Extinction, Biological, Endangered Species, Climate Change, Aquatic Organisms

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