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Coronavirus Pathogenesis and the Emerging Pathogen Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus
Open accessAbstract
SUMMARY: Coronaviruses are a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-strand RNA viruses classified within the Nidovirales order. This coronavirus family consists of pathogens of many animal species and of humans, including the recently isolated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This review is divided into two main parts; the first concerns the animal coronaviruses and their pathogenesis, with an emphasis on the functions of individual viral genes, and the second discusses the newly described human emerging pathogen, SARS-CoV. The coronavirus part covers (i) a description of a group of coronaviruses and the diseases they cause, including the prototype coronavirus, murine hepatitis virus, which is one of the recognized animal models for multiple sclerosis, as well as viruses of veterinary importance that infect the pig, chicken, and cat and a summary of the human viruses; (ii) a short summary of the replication cycle of coronaviruses in cell culture; (iii) the development and application of reverse genetics systems; and (iv) the roles of individual coronavirus proteins in replication and pathogenesis. The SARS-CoV part covers the pathogenesis of SARS, the developing animal models for infection, and the progress in vaccine development and antiviral therapies. The data gathered on the animal coronaviruses continue to be helpful in understanding SARS-CoV.
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“This structure gives it a crown-like appearance, and in Latin, corona means crown, so this is why, these viruses are labelled as coronaviruses [3,4].”
BackgroundOdhar, H. A. (2020) · Bioinformation · doi:10.6026/97320630016236 · Cited by 92
Kulyar, M. F., Li, R., Mehmood, K., Waqas, M., Li, K., & Li, J. (2020) · Phytomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153277 · Cited by 90
“After the onset of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003, coronaviruses were identified as "emerging pathogen" (Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005) with high level of genetic diversity, frequent genomic rearrangements and widely distribution between human and animals (Cui et al., 2019; Wong et…”
Ball Python Nidovirus: a Candidate Etiologic Agent for Severe Respiratory Disease in Python regius
Stenglein, M. D., Jacobson, E. R., Wozniak, E. J., Wellehan, J. F. X., Kincaid, A. L., Gordon, M., Porter, B. F., Baumgartner, W. A., Stahl, S. J., Kelley, K. L., et al. (2014) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.01484-14 · Cited by 92
“11), a finding consistent with respiratory/enteric tropism of many viruses in the Coronaviridae family (7, 8).”
The current understanding and potential therapeutic options to combat COVID-19
Pooladanda, V., Thatikonda, S., & Godugu, C. (2020) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117765 · Cited by 90
“These viruses are generally characterized by their spikes that protrude from their surface and follow unique replication strategy [5].”
Watanabe, R., Matsuyama, S., Shirato, K., Maejima, M., Fukushi, S., Morikawa, S., & Taguchi, F. (2008) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01412-08 · Cited by 88
Huang, C., Lokugamage, K. G., Rozovics, J. M., Narayanan, K., Semler, B. L., & Makino, S. (2010) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01806-10 · Cited by 88
“Coronaviruses (CoVs) primarily cause respiratory and enteric diseases in vertebrates (24).”
BackgroundSerrano, P., Johnson, M. A., Almeida, M. S., Horst, R., Herrmann, T., Joseph, J. S., Neuman, B. W., Subramanian, V., Saikatendu, K. S., Buchmeier, M. J., et al. (2007) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.00969-07 · Cited by 87
“Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a viral infectious disease that has attracted worldwide attention since an outbreak in 2003 ( 26 ).”
BackgroundTetraspanins: Architects of Viral Entry and Exit Platforms
Hantak, M. P., Qing, E., Earnest, J. T., & Gallagher, T. (2018) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01429-17 · Cited by 93
“These are enveloped viruses that cause respiratory and enteric infections in humans and animals (19) ; life-threatening severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV) are notable members.”
BackgroundDevaney, R., Trudgett, J., Trudgett, A., Meharg, C., & Smyth, V. J. (2016) · Avian Pathology · doi:10.1080/03079457.2016.1193123 · Cited by 86
“Coronaviruses have been detected in a variety of wild birds and are responsible for mild to severe respiratory signs, central nervous system diseases, and GI diseases (Gallagher & Buchmeier, 2001; Weiss & Navas-Martin, 2005; Weiss & Leibowitz, 2011).”
BackgroundMicrofluidics-Based Nanobiosensors for Healthcare Monitoring
Kumari, M., Gupta, V., Kumar, N., & Arun, R. K. (2023) · Molecular Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s12033-023-00760-9 · Cited by 91
“Many viruses have RNA as their genetic material e.g., Ebola virus, hepatitis C, influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS), coronavirus and poliomyelitis virus etc., responsible for severe to fatal diseases [189, 190].”
Keam, S., Megawati, D., Patel, S. K., Tiwari, R., Dhama, K., & Harapan, H. (2020) · Reviews in Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/rmv.2123 · Cited by 85
“teins: (a) spike (S) type I glycoprotein, forming peplomers on the virion surface; (b) membrane (M) protein, spanning the membrane three times and containing a short N-terminal ectodomain and cytoplasmic tail; and (c) small membrane protein (E), a highly hydrophobic protein.(15) S protein is trimeric and processed by…”
BackgroundKefir: A protective dietary supplementation against viral infection
Hamida, R. S., Shami, A., Ali, M. A., Almohawes, Z. N., Mohammed, A. E., & Bin-Meferij, M. M. (2020) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110974 · Cited by 93
Inhibition of the Alpha/Beta Interferon Response by Mouse Hepatitis Virus at Multiple Levels
Roth-Cross, J. K., Martínez‐Sobrido, L., Scott, E. P., García‐Sastre, A., & Weiss, S. R. (2007) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.00013-07 · Cited by 85
Self-citationOh, H. J., Chia, A., Chang, C. X. L., Leong, H. N., Ling, K. L., Grotenbreg, G. M., Gehring, A. J., Tan, Y., & Bertoletti, A. (2011) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.05039-11 · Cited by 84
“No severe human disease associated with coronaviruses was reported until the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in late 2002 in Guangdong, China (22, 29).”
BackgroundNeurological manifestations of coronavirus infections – a systematic review
Almqvist, J., Granberg, T., Tzortzakakis, A., Klironomos, S., Kollia, E., Öhberg, C., Martinꝉ, R., Piehl, F., Ouellette, R., & Ineichen, B. V. (2020) · Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology · doi:10.1002/acn3.51166 · Cited by 85
“additional HCoV species (HCoV-229E, HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-OC43) cause disease in humans, albeit typically with milder clinical courses.(3) While coronaviruses primarily target the human respiratory system,(4) they can also enter the central nervous system (CNS).”
BackgroundResultSilver nanoparticles as a potential treatment against SARS‐CoV ‐2: A review
Pilaquinga, F., Morey, J., Arias, M. T., Seqqat, R., & Piña, M. D. L. N. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology · doi:10.1002/wnan.1707 · Cited by 83
“SARS-CoV-2 was first detected in December 2019 in Wuhan City, Hubei Province (China); it has a percentage of lethality of 2% to 3% but is extremely contagious (Scavone et al., 2020; Weiss & Navas-Martin, 2005).”
BackgroundShirato, K., Maejima, M., Islam, M. T., Miyazaki, A., Kawase, M., Matsuyama, S., & Taguchi, F. (2016) · Journal of General Virology · doi:10.1099/jgv.0.000563 · Cited by 84
Immunological Aspects of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and the Putative Beneficial Role of Vitamin-D
Peng, M.-Y., Liu, W.-C., Zheng, J.-Q., Lu, C., Hou, Y., Zheng, C., Song, J.-Y., Lu, K., & Chao, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22105251 · Cited by 86
Antiviral Effects of Green Tea EGCG and Its Potential Application against COVID-19
Wang, Y., Li, Q., Zheng, X., Lu, J., & Liang, Y. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26133962 · Cited by 89
Epitope based vaccine prediction for SARS-COV-2 by deploying immuno-informatics approach
Joshi, A., Joshi, B. C., Mannan, M. A.-U., & Kaushik, V. (2020) · Informatics in Medicine Unlocked · doi:10.1016/j.imu.2020.100338 · Cited by 81
Batty, C. J., Heise, M. T., Bachelder, E. M., & Ainslie, K. M. (2020) · Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.addr.2020.12.006 · Cited by 86
El‐Demerdash, A., Metwaly, A. M., Hassan, A., El‐Aziz, T. M. A., Elkaeed, E. B., Eissa, I. H., Arafa, R. K., & Stockand, J. D. (2021) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom11030460 · Cited by 87
Zakhartchouk, A. N., Sharon, C., Satkunarajah, M., Aupérin, T. C., Viswanathan, S., Mutwiri, G., Petric, M., See, R. H., Brunham, R. C., Finlay, B. B., et al. (2006) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.06.084 · Cited by 80
Hozhabri, H., Piceci‐Sparascio, F., Sohrabi, H., Mousavifar, L., Roy, R., Scribano, D., Luca, A. D., Ambrosi, C., & Sarshar, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17165648 · Cited by 86
A review on potential of natural products in the management of COVID-19
Chakravarti, R., Singh, R., Ghosh, A., Dey, D., Sharma, P., Ravichandiran, V., Roy, S., & Ghosh, D. (2021) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d1ra00644d · Cited by 81
Within-Host Diversity of SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 Patients With Variable Disease Severities
Al-Khatib, H. A., Benslimane, F. M., Elbashir, I., Coyle, P. V., Maslamani, M. A. R. S. A., Al‐Khal, A., Thani, A. A. A., & Yassine, H. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.575613 · Cited by 75
“There are four human coronaviruses that are seasonal viruses and cause mild upper respiratory tract infections: OC43, 229E, HKU1, and NL63 (Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005).”
BackgroundImmunogenic and reactogenic efficacy of Covaxin and Covishield: a comparative review
Das, S., Kar, S. S., Samanta, S., Banerjee, J., Giri, B., & Dash, S. K. (2022) · Immunologic Research · doi:10.1007/s12026-022-09265-0 · Cited by 82
“This virus has several crown-shaped spike patterns on its surface [15].”
BackgroundReceptor-binding domain as a target for developing SARS vaccines.
Zhu, X., Liu, Q., Du, L., Lu, L., & Jiang, S. (2013) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2013.06.06 · Cited by 78
Coronavirus MHV-A59 infects the lung and causes severe pneumonia in C57BL/6 mice
Yang, Z., Du, J., Chen, G., Zhao, J. J., Yang, X., Su, L., Cheng, G., & Tang, H. (2014) · Virologica Sinica · doi:10.1007/s12250-014-3530-y · Cited by 75
“A large body of evidence have associated pathologies with MHV-A59 infection, including hepatitis (Kim K D, et al., 2007; Weiss S R, et al., 2005; Zhao J, et al., 2008) , autoimmune hepatitis-like disease (Aparicio J L, et al., 2011 ), thymus involution (Godfraind C, et al., 1995 ), hypergammaglobulinaemia (Coutelier J…”
Ren, Z., Hu, R., Wang, Z., Zhang, M., Ruan, Y., Wu, Z., Wu, H., Hu, X.-P., Hu, Z., Ren, W., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation · doi:10.1016/j.healun.2020.03.008 · Cited by 78
“CoVs are positive-strand RNA viruses, which primarily target mucosal surfaces of respiratory and intestinal tracts to establish an infection.(17,18) Epithelial cell surface components are exploited as primary receptors to mediate viral entry and the establishment of a viral infection.”
BackgroundWorldwide ACE (I/D) polymorphism may affect COVID-19 recovery rate: an ecological meta-regression
Hatami, N., Ahi, S., Sadeghinikoo, A., Foroughian, M., Javdani, F., Kalani, N., Fereydoni, M., Keshavarz, P., & Hoseini, A. S. (2020) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-020-02381-7 · Cited by 78
Discovery of a novel accessory protein NS7a encoded by porcine deltacoronavirus
Fang, P., Fang, L., Hong, Y., Liu, X., Dong, N., Ma, P., Bi, J., Wang, D., & Xiao, S. (2016) · Journal of General Virology · doi:10.1099/jgv.0.000690 · Cited by 78
“Indeed, at least four sgRNAs (sgRNA 3, 7, 8 and 9) in SARS-CoV are bicistronic and produce two ORFs initiating at the first or additional downstream start codon [29, 31, 32].”
A Review on COVID-19: Origin, Spread, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention
(2020) · Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry · doi:10.33263/briac106.72347242 · Cited by 81
Mosquera-Yuqui, F., Lopez-Guerra, N., & Moncayo, E. A. (2020) · Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics · doi:10.1080/07391102.2020.1835716 · Cited by 77
“Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a group of enveloped, large nonsegmented positive-sense RNA viruses able to cause enteric, respiratory, and central nervous diseases in animals, including humans (McIntosh, 1974; Weiss & Navas-Martin, 2005).”
BackgroundMechanisms of Coronavirus Nsp1-Mediated Control of Host and Viral Gene Expression
Nakagawa, K., & Makino, S. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells10020300 · Cited by 78
The Role of Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Review
Gudowska-Sawczuk, M., & Mroczko, B. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10132772 · Cited by 76
“Human coronaviruses were first discovered in the 1960s and the Coronaviridae family of order Nidovirales was established in the Taxonomy of Viruses in 1975 [1,2].”
BackgroundOverview of the pathogenesis of COVID‑19 (Review)
Li, C., He, Q., Qian, H., & Liu, J. (2021) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2021.10444 · Cited by 90
Genetic diversity of coronaviruses in bats in Lao PDR and Cambodia
Lacroix, A., Duong, V., Hul, V., Sorn, S., Davun, H., Keo, O., Chea, S., Hassanin, A., Theppangna, W., Silithammavong, S., et al. (2016) · Infection Genetics and Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2016.11.029 · Cited by 75
“Coronaviruses can cause acute and chronic respiratory, enteric, neurological and hepatic diseases in their hosts (Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005).”
Adesegun, O. A., Binuyo, T., Adeyemi, O., Ehioghae, O., Rabor, D. F., Amusan, O., Akinboboye, O., Duke, O. F., Olafimihan, A. G., Ajose, O., et al. (2020) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.20-0461 · Cited by 75
“Although these viruses have been described formore than 50 years, the index outbreak is caused by a new strain, SARS-CoV-2.(1,2) COVID19 often presents with a respiratory syndrome that ranges in severity from dry cough, malaise, fever, sore throat, and new”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Weiss, S. R., & Navas-Martin, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Corresponding author
- Weiss, Susan R.
- ORCID
- Weiss, Susan R.
- Venue
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
- Publisher
- American Society for Microbiology
- Published
- 2005-12
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 635-664
- ISSN
- 1092-2172 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-5557
- PMC
- PMC1306801
- OpenAlex
- W2131988685
- Cited by
- 1,256
- References
- 391
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 253 · 2020: 352 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 3.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Multiple Sclerosis Society
- Drexel University
- Multiple Sclerosis Society
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI 17418, AI-47800, N01 AI060021, R01AI047800, R01AI060021, R01AI017418, AI60021)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS021954, NS-21954, NS-30606, P01NS030606)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Viral Infections and Outbreaks Research
- Keywords
- coronavirus pathogenesis, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, SARS-CoV, animal coronaviruses, mouse hepatitis virus, reverse genetics, coronavirus proteins, SARS, animal models of infection, vaccine development, antiviral therapy, emerging pathogens
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cats, Cattle, Disease Models, Animal, Humans, Viral Proteins, Viral Vaccines, Virion, Coronavirus, Coronavirus Infections, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus, Mice
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