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Coronavirus Pathogenesis and the Emerging Pathogen Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus
Open accessAbstract
SUMMARY: Coronaviruses are a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-strand RNA viruses classified within the Nidovirales order. This coronavirus family consists of pathogens of many animal species and of humans, including the recently isolated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This review is divided into two main parts; the first concerns the animal coronaviruses and their pathogenesis, with an emphasis on the functions of individual viral genes, and the second discusses the newly described human emerging pathogen, SARS-CoV. The coronavirus part covers (i) a description of a group of coronaviruses and the diseases they cause, including the prototype coronavirus, murine hepatitis virus, which is one of the recognized animal models for multiple sclerosis, as well as viruses of veterinary importance that infect the pig, chicken, and cat and a summary of the human viruses; (ii) a short summary of the replication cycle of coronaviruses in cell culture; (iii) the development and application of reverse genetics systems; and (iv) the roles of individual coronavirus proteins in replication and pathogenesis. The SARS-CoV part covers the pathogenesis of SARS, the developing animal models for infection, and the progress in vaccine development and antiviral therapies. The data gathered on the animal coronaviruses continue to be helpful in understanding SARS-CoV.
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“Coronaviruses are vertebrate pathogens mainly associated with respiratory and enteric diseases [1].”
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Hou, T., Zeng, W., Yang, M., Chen, W., Ren, L., Ai, J., Wu, J., Liao, Y., Gou, X., Li, Y., et al. (2020) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1008705 · Cited by 238
Multiple spillovers from humans and onward transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer
Kuchipudi, S. V., Nair, M. S., Ruden, R. M., Yon, M., Nissly, R. H., Vandegrift, K. J., Nelli, R. K., Li, L., Jayarao, B. M., Maranas, C. D., et al. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2121644119 · Cited by 240
CORONAVIRUS DISEASE 2019 (COVID-19): A LITERATURE REVIEW
Ibrahım, B., & Önem, E. (2021) · Gevher Nesibe Journal IESDR · doi:10.46648/gnj.200 · Cited by 251
SARS coronavirus and innate immunity
Frieman, M. B., Heise, M. T., & Baric, R. S. (2007) · Virus Research · doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2007.03.015 · Cited by 235
Dittmar, M., Lee, J. S., Whig, K., Segrist, E., Li, M., Kamalia, B., Castellana, L., Ayyanathan, K., Cardenas‐Diaz, F. L., Morrisey, E. E., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108959 · Cited by 230
“First, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) emerged in China in 2003, followed by Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)CoV in 2012 (de Wit et al., 2016; Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005).”
Roth-Cross, J. K., Bender, S. J., & Weiss, S. R. (2008) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01199-08 · Cited by 228
“Therefore, it is used as a model for viral hepatitis, viral encephalitis, and demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (51).”
BackgroundSelf-citationInhibitors of SARS-CoV‑2 Entry: Current and Future Opportunities
Xiu, S., Dick, A., Ju, H., Mirzaie, S., Abdi, F., Cocklin, S., Zhan, P., & Liu, X. (2020) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00502 · Cited by 227
DeDiego, M. L., Nieto-Torres, J. L., Jiménez-Guardeño, J. M., Regla-Nava, J. Á., Álvarez, E. A., Oliveros, J. C., Zhao, J., Fett, C., Perlman, S. M., & Enjuanes, L. (2011) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002315 · Cited by 216
“SARS-CoV is the most pathogenic human coronavirus known [70].”
BackgroundJiang, L., Wang, N., Zuo, T., Shi, X., Poon, V. K., Wu, Y., Gao, F., Li, D., Wang, R., Guo, J., et al. (2014) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3008140 · Cited by 215
Viral and Cellular mRNA Translation in Coronavirus-Infected Cells
Nakagawa, K., Lokugamage, K. G., & Makino, S. (2016) · Advances in virus research · doi:10.1016/bs.aivir.2016.08.001 · Cited by 218
“CoVs cause primarily respiratory and/or enteric diseases and are found in many animal species, including wild animals, domestic animals, and humans (Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005).”
BackgroundUlaşlı, M., Verheije, M. H., de Haan, C. A. M., & Reggiori, F. (2010) · Cellular Microbiology · doi:10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01437.x · Cited by 215
“CoV are enveloped (+) strand RNA viruses (Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005; Gorbalenya et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBarnard, D. L., Day, C. W., Bailey, K. W., Heiner, M., Montgomery, R. A., Lauridsen, L., Chan, P. K. S., & Sidwell, R. W. (2006) · Antiviral chemistry & chemotherapy · doi:10.1177/095632020601700505 · Cited by 210
Zhu, H., Rhee, J., Cheng, P. P., Waliany, S., Chang, A., Witteles, R. M., Maecker, H. T., Davis, M. M., Nguyen, P. K. P., & Wu, S. M. (2020) · Current Cardiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11886-020-01292-3 · Cited by 211
“Of note, SARS-CoV-2 also contains an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase which is the target of the anti-viral agent remdesivir, currently being studied randomized clinical trials for use against COVID-19 disease [26] .”
The Immune Response and Immunopathology of COVID-19
Mortaz, E., Tabarsi, P., Varahram, M., Folkerts, G., & Adcock, I. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.02037 · Cited by 210
“Pulmonary coronaviruses have long been recognized as harmful pathogens in domesticated animals that also cause upper respiratory tract infections in humans (11).”
BackgroundAgrawal, A. S., Garron, T. M., Tao, X., Peng, B., Wakamiya, M., Chan, T., Couch, R. B., & Tseng, C.-T. K. (2015) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.03427-14 · Cited by 208
Kindler, E., Jónsdóttir, H. R., Muth, D., Hamming, O. J., Hartmann, R., Rodriguez, R., Geffers, R., Fouchier, R. A. M., Drosten, C., Müller, M. A., et al. (2013) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.00611-12 · Cited by 198
Being a front-line dentist during the Covid-19 pandemic: a literature review
Fallahi, H. R., Keyhan, S. O., Zandian, D., Kim, S., & Cheshmi, B. (2020) · Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery · doi:10.1186/s40902-020-00256-5 · Cited by 201
“Their helical symmetry nucleocapsid is approximately 26-32 kb in size, making it the largest investigated genome among RNA viruses [2, 3] .”
BackgroundBchetnia, M., Girard, C., Duchaine, C., & Laprise, C. (2020) · Journal of Infection and Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2020.07.011 · Cited by 205
Interferon induction of IFITM proteins promotes infection by human coronavirus OC43
Zhao, X., Guo, F., Liu, F., Cuconati, A., Chang, J., Block, T. M., & Guo, J. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1320856111 · Cited by 192
“Furthermore, although it has been shown that HCoV-OC43 binds to 9-O-acetylated sialic acid–containing receptors to agglutinate mouse, rat, and avian erythrocytes (16), the specific receptor molecules that mediate the infectious entry of the virus remain to be identified (1).”
BackgroundAn update on canine coronaviruses: Viral evolution and pathobiology
Decaro, N., & Buonavoglia, C. (2008) · Veterinary Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.06.007 · Cited by 192
“SARS-CoV, initially defined as prototype of a new group 4, has been placed more recently within group 2 CoVs, in a subgroup 2b, together with SARS-like CoVs isolated from bats and wild carnivores (Gorbalenya et al., 2004; Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005).”
Wang, F., Chen, C., Tan, W., Yang, K., & Yang, H. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep22677 · Cited by 185
“2a) undergoes mechanism-based inhibition to achieve covalent irreversible inactivation, as shown in the equation (1):”
BackgroundNarayanan, K., Ramirez, S. I., Lokugamage, K. G., & Makino, S. (2014) · Virus Research · doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2014.11.019 · Cited by 185
Madjunkov, M., Dviri, M., & Librach, C. L. (2020) · Journal of Ovarian Research · doi:10.1186/s13048-020-00737-1 · Cited by 190
“The next steps are maturation of new viral particles, packaging in vesicles, transfer to the cell membrane, and release [7, 9].”
BackgroundCell Cycle Regulation During Viral Infection
Bagga, S., & Bouchard, M. J. (2014) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0888-2_10 · Cited by 187
“SARS-CoV is the causative agent of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) [ 87 ] .”
BackgroundGao, J., Lu, G., Qi, J., Li, Y., Wu, Y., Deng, Y. L., Geng, H., Li, H., Wang, Q., Xiao, H., et al. (2013) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02433-13 · Cited by 175
“This unusual pathogenicity distinguishes MERS-CoV from most other coronaviruses, which only cause mild illness in humans (4), and relates MERS-CoV to the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (SARS-CoV).”
BackgroundBhowmick, G. D., Dhar, D., Nath, D., Ghangrekar, M. M., Banerjee, R., Das, S., & Chatterjee, J. (2020) · npj Clean Water · doi:10.1038/s41545-020-0079-1 · Cited by 163
Ulaşlı, M., Gurses, S. A., Bayraktar, R., Yumrutaş, Ö., Öztuzcu, S., İğci, M., İğci, Y. Z., Çakmak, E. A., & Arslan, A. (2014) · Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11033-014-3019-7 · Cited by 161
“Coronaviridae family causes various diseases including bronchitis, gastroenteritis, hepatitis systemic diseases and etc. on humans, animal and birds [12, 13] .”
BackgroundPathogenicity of severe acute respiratory coronavirus deletion mutants in hACE-2 transgenic mice
DeDiego, M. L., Pewe, L. L., Álvarez, E. A., Rejas, M. T., Perlman, S. M., & Enjuanes, L. (2008) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2008.03.005 · Cited by 160
“Among human CoVs, SARS-CoV causes the most severe disease (Weiss and Navas-Martin, 2005).”
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
Cleri, D. J., Ricketti, A. J., & Vernaleo, J. R. (2010) · Infectious Disease Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.idc.2009.10.005 · Cited by 160
“guinea pig (Cavia porcellus), mouse (Mus musculus), rat (Rattus rattus), domestic cat (Felis domesticus), and pig (Sus scrofa).(21) The common marmoset is susceptible to SARS-CoV.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDijkman, R., Jebbink, M. F., Koekkoek, S. M., Deijs, M., Jónsdóttir, H. R., Molenkamp, R., Ieven, M. M., Goossens, H., Thiel, V., & van der Hoek, L. (2013) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.03368-12 · Cited by 155
Porcine enteric coronaviruses: an updated overview of the pathogenesis, prevalence, and diagnosis
Liu, Q., & Wang, H.-Y. (2021) · Veterinary Research Communications · doi:10.1007/s11259-021-09808-0 · Cited by 169
The SARS-CoV-2 Exerts a Distinctive Strategy for Interacting with the ACE2 Human Receptor
Brielle, E. S., Schneidman‐Duhovny, D., & Linial, M. (2020) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v12050497 · Cited by 155
Corman, V. M., Kallies, R., Philipps, H., Göpner, G., Müller, M. A., Eckerle, I., Brünink, S., Drosten, C., & Drexler, J. F. (2013) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01600-13 · Cited by 149
“The predicted AUG codons of ORF3b, ORF4b, and ORF8b were not preceded by separate body TRS elements and may be translated from bicistronic mRNAs, as discussed for other CoVs, including MERS-CoV (39, 42, 43).”
BackgroundCOVID-19: Progress in diagnostics, therapy and vaccination
Liu, X., Liu, C., Liu, G., Luo, W., & Xia, N. (2020) · Theranostics · doi:10.7150/thno.47987 · Cited by 159
“Coronaviruses, a genus in the Coronaviridae family, are enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with the largest known genomes (from 25 to 32 kb) among RNA viruses [9, 10].”
BackgroundThe nsp3 Macrodomain Promotes Virulence in Mice with Coronavirus-Induced Encephalitis
Fehr, A. R., Athmer, J., Channappanavar, R., Phillips, J. M., Meyerholz, D. K., & Perlman, S. M. (2014) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02596-14 · Cited by 153
“bose-1-phosphatase [nsp3], and a deubiquitinase [nsp3]) (1, 2).”
BackgroundEriksson, K., Cervantes‐Barragán, L., Ludewig, B., & Thiel, V. (2008) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02082-08 · Cited by 153
“Its natural host is the mouse, and MHV has been extensively studied in the context of various disease models and host innate and adoptive immune responses (3, 38).”
BackgroundFull-genome sequences of the first two SARS-CoV-2 viruses from India
Yadav, P. D., Potdar, V. A., Choudhary, M. L., Nyayanit, D. A., Agrawal, M., Jadhav, S., Majumdar, T., Shete, A. M., Basu, A., Abraham, P., et al. (2020) · The Indian Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_663_20 · Cited by 155
“RdRp (1) RdRp (2) E gene N gene Rnase P internal control”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLi, Y., Wan, Y., Liu, P., Zhao, J., Lu, G., Qi, J., Wang, Q., Lu, X., Wu, Y., Liu, W., et al. (2015) · Cell Research · doi:10.1038/cr.2015.113 · Cited by 150
Clinical Implications of SARS-CoV-2 Interaction With Renin Angiotensin System
Brojakowska, A., Narula, J., Shimony, R. Y., & Bander, J. A. (2020) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2020.04.028 · Cited by 158
“Angiotensin-(1-7) binds to specific receptors on cardiac fibroblasts to initiate antifibrotic and antitrophic effects.”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Weiss, S. R., & Navas-Martin, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Corresponding author
- Weiss, Susan R.
- ORCID
- Weiss, Susan R.
- Venue
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
- Publisher
- American Society for Microbiology
- Published
- 2005-12
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 635-664
- ISSN
- 1092-2172 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-5557
- PMC
- PMC1306801
- OpenAlex
- W2131988685
- Cited by
- 1,256
- References
- 391
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 253 · 2020: 352 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 3.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Multiple Sclerosis Society
- Drexel University
- Multiple Sclerosis Society
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI 17418, AI-47800, N01 AI060021, R01AI047800, R01AI060021, R01AI017418, AI60021)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS021954, NS-21954, NS-30606, P01NS030606)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Viral Infections and Outbreaks Research
- Keywords
- coronavirus pathogenesis, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, SARS-CoV, animal coronaviruses, mouse hepatitis virus, reverse genetics, coronavirus proteins, SARS, animal models of infection, vaccine development, antiviral therapy, emerging pathogens
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cats, Cattle, Disease Models, Animal, Humans, Viral Proteins, Viral Vaccines, Virion, Coronavirus, Coronavirus Infections, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus, Mice
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