Precipitation of iron silicate nanoparticles in early Precambrian oceans marks Earth's first iron age

The rise of oxygen in Earth's early ocean and atmosphere

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Iron formation: the sedimentary product of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes

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Some Precambrian banded iron-formations (BIFs) from around the world: Their age, geologic setting, mineralogy, metamorphism, geochemistry, and origins

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The silica cycle in the Precambrian

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Primary and diagenetic controls of isotopic compositions of iron-formation carbonates

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Reverse engineering mother nature — Shale sedimentology from an experimental perspective

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Sorption of silica by clay minerals

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Iron silicate microgranules as precursor sediments to 2.5-billion-year-old banded iron formations

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Replacement origin for hematite in 2.5 Ga banded iron formation: Evidence for postdepositional oxidation of iron-bearing minerals

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Origin and evolution of large Precambrian iron formations

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The origin of clay minerals in active and relict hydrothermal deposits

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Hematite Nanospheres of Possible Colloidal Origin from a Precambrian Banded Iron Formation

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Hematite replacement of iron-bearing precursor sediments in the 3.46-b.y.-old Marble Bar Chert, Pilbara craton, Australia

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Seafloor silicification and hardground development during deposition of 2.5 Ga banded iron formations

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Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history

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Iron Isotope Systematics

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Reverse weathering as a long-term stabilizer of marine pH and planetary climate

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An authigenic origin for Precambrian greenalite: Implications for iron formation and the chemistry of ancient seawater

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Evolution of the Global Carbon Cycle and Climate Regulation on Earth

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Biosilicification Drives a Decline of Dissolved Si in the Oceans through Geologic Time

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Biomass recycling and Earth’s early phosphorus cycle

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Greenalite precipitation linked to the deposition of banded iron formations downslope from a late Archean carbonate platform

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The biogeochemistry of ferruginous lakes and past ferruginous oceans

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Primary Productivity Was Limited by Electron Donors Prior to the Advent of Oxygenic Photosynthesis

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The Archean nickel famine revisited

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The formation of magnetite in the early Archean oceans

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The Iron Speciation Paleoredox Proxy

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Abiologic silicon isotope fractionation between aqueous Si and Fe(III)-Si gel in simulated Archean seawater: implications for Si isotope records in Precambrian sedimentary rocks

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Dust to dust: evidence for the formation of “primary” hematite dust in banded iron formations via oxidation of iron silicate nanoparticles

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Development of Iron Speciation Reference Materials for Palaeoredox Analysis

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Greenalite and its role in the genesis of early Precambrian iron formations – A review

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Low‐Fe(III) Greenalite Was a Primary Mineral From Neoarchean Oceans

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Products of the iron cycle on the early Earth

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Apatite nanoparticles in 3.46–2.46 Ga iron formations: Evidence for phosphorus-rich hydrothermal plumes on early Earth

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Making magnetite late again: Evidence for widespread magnetite growth by thermal decomposition of siderite in Hamersley banded iron formations

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Phytoplankton contributions to the trace-element composition of Precambrian banded iron formations

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Widespread deposition of greenalite to form Banded Iron Formations before the Great Oxidation Event

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X‐Ray Amorphous Components in Sedimentary Rocks of Gale Crater, Mars: Evidence for Ancient Formation and Long‐Lived Aqueous Activity

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Mineral paragenesis in Paleozoic manganese ore deposits: Depositional versus post-depositional formation processes

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Sedimentology of the ∼3.3 Ga upper Mendon Formation, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa

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Oncoidal granular iron formation in the Mesoarchaean Pongola Supergroup, southern Africa: Textural and geochemical evidence for biological activity during iron deposition

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Nickel and iron partitioning between clay minerals, Fe-oxides and Fe-sulfides in lagoon sediments from New Caledonia

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Archean banded iron formations of India

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Iron and sulfur cycling in the cGENIE.muffin Earth system model (v0.9.21)

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Seafloor silicification and hardground development during deposition of 2.5 Ga banded iron formations

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Ferric iron triggers greenalite formation in simulated Archean seawater

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Microbial processes during deposition and diagenesis of Banded Iron Formations

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Petrology and geochemistry of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation, Hamersley Basin, Western Australia

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Silicon isotope fractionation during microbial reduction of Fe(III)-Si gels under Archean seawater conditions and implications for iron formation genesis

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Nanoparticulate apatite and greenalite in oldest, well-preserved hydrothermal vent precipitates

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Evidence from laminated chert in banded iron formations for deposition by gravitational settling of iron-silicate muds

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Evidence for anoxic shallow oceans at 2.45 Ga: Implications for the rise of oxygenic photosynthesis

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Fe isotopes of a 2.4 Ga hematite-rich IF constrain marine redox conditions around the GOE

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Vanadium isotope fractionation during hydrothermal sedimentation: Implications for the vanadium cycle in the oceans

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Nanoscale Anatomy of Iron‐Silica Self‐Organized Membranes: Implications for Prebiotic Chemistry

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Fraction-specific rare earth elements enable the reconstruction of primary seawater signatures from iron formations

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Temperature fluctuations in the Archean ocean as trigger for varve-like deposition of iron and silica minerals in banded iron formations

Schad, M., Halama, M., Bishop, B., Konhauser, K. O., & Kappler, A. A. (2019) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2019.08.031 · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Interaction of FeII and Si under anoxic and reducing conditions: Structural characteristics of ferrous silicate co-precipitates

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Micronutrient availability in Precambrian oceans controlled by greenalite formation

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Greenalite Nanoparticles in Alkaline Vent Plumes as Templates for the Origin of Life

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., & Fischer, W. W. (2020) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2270 · Cited by 26 · see citing works

Microbial diversity and iron oxidation at Okuoku‐hachikurou Onsen, a Japanese hot spring analog of Precambrian iron formations

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High Organic Burial Efficiency Is Required to Explain Mass Balance in Earth's Early Carbon Cycle

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Aqueous system-level processes and prokaryote assemblages in the ferruginous and sulfate-rich bottom waters of a post-mining lake

Petrash, D. A., Steenbergen, I. M., Valero, A., Meador, T. B., Pačes, T., & Thomazo, C. (2022) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-19-1723-2022 · Cited by 24 · see citing works

The evolution of the marine Si cycle in the Archean-Palaeozoic - an overlooked Si source?

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Soluble, Colloidal, and Particulate Iron Across the Hydrothermal Vent Mixing Zones in Broken Spur and Rainbow, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Yücel, M., Sevgen, S., & Bris, N. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.631885 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Fe isotope fractionation during Fe(II) oxidation by the marine photoferrotroph Rhodovulum iodosum in the presence of Si – Implications for Precambrian iron formation deposition

Wu, W., Swanner, E. D., Kleinhanns, I. C., Schoenberg, R., Pan, Y., & Kappler, A. A. (2017) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2017.05.033 · Cited by 22 · see citing works

Tiny particles building huge ore deposits – Particle-based crystallisation in banded iron formation-hosted iron ore deposits (Hamersley Province, Australia)

Egglseder, M. S., Cruden, A. R., Tomkins, A. G., Wilson, S., Dalstra, H. J., Rielli, A., Li, C., Baumgartner, J., & Faivre, D. (2018) · Ore Geology Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.10.001 · Cited by 21 · see citing works

Organic diagenesis in stromatolitic dolomite and chert from the late Palaeoproterozoic McLeary Formation

Gabriel, N. W., Papineau, D., She, Z., Leider, A., & Fogel, M. L. (2021) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.106052 · Cited by 20 · see citing works

Microbial Fe cycling in a simulated Precambrian ocean environment: Implications for secondary mineral (trans)formation and deposition during BIF genesis

Schad, M., Byrne, J. M., ThomasArrigo, L. K., Kretzschmar, R., Konhauser, K. O., & Kappler, A. A. (2022) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2022.05.016 · Cited by 19 · see citing works

RESEARCH FOCUS: The life and times of banded iron formations

Smith, A. J. B. (2015) · Geology · doi:10.1130/focus122015.1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works

Water near its Supercritical Point and at Alkaline pH for the Production of Ferric Oxides and Silicates in Anoxic Conditions. A New Hypothesis for the Synthesis of Minerals Observed in Banded Iron Formations and for the Related Geobiotropic Chemistry inside Fluid Inclusions

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Life on a Mesoarchean marine shelf – insights from the world’s oldest known granular iron formation

Smith, A. J. B., Beukes, N. J., Gutzmer, J., Johnson, C. M., Czaja, A. D., Nhleko, N., de Beer, F., Hoffman, J. W., & Awramik, S. M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66805-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works

Exploring the secondary mineral products generated by microbial iron respiration in Archean ocean simulations

Nims, C., & Johnson, J. E. (2022) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12523 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Development of a greenalite-silica shuttle during incursions of hydrothermal vent plumes onto Neoarchean shelf, Hamersley region, Australia

Rasmussen, B., & Muhling, J. R. (2020) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.106003 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Did nutrient-rich oceans fuel Earth’s oxygenation?

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., Tosca, N. J., & Fischer, W. W. (2023) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g50835.1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works

The role of Fe(II)-silicate gel in the generation of Archean and Paleoproterozoic chert

Tostevin, R., & Sevgen, S. (2024) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g52202.1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works

Iron oxide chemistry supports a multistage hydrothermal genesis of BIF-hosted hematite ore in the Mt. Tom Price and Mt. Whaleback deposits

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A Neoarchean (ca. 2500 Ma) age for jaspilite-carbonate BIF hosting purported micro-fossils from the Eoarchean (≥3750 Ma) Nuvvuagittuq supracrustal belt (Québec, Canada)

Lan, Z., Kamo, S. L., Roberts, N. M. W., Sano, Y., & Li, X. (2022) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106728 · Cited by 14 · see citing works

Isotopic Constraints on the Nature of Primary Precipitates in Archean–Early Paleoproterozoic Iron Formations from Determinations of the Iron Phonon Density of States of Greenalite and 2L- and 6L-Ferrihydrite

Heard, A. W., Dauphas, N., Hinz, I. L., Johnson, J. E., Blanchard, M., Alp, E. E., Hu, M. Y., Zhao, J. Y., Lavina, B., Fornace, M. E., et al. (2023) · ACS Earth and Space Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.2c00313 · Cited by 14 · see citing works

Colloidal origin of microbands in banded iron formations

Egglseder, M. S., Cruden, A. R., Tomkins, A. G., Wilson, S., & Langendam, A. (2018) · Geochemical Perspectives Letters · doi:10.7185/geochemlet.1808 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

Hexagonal magnetite in Algoma-type banded iron formations of the ca. 2.52 Ga Baizhiyan Formation, North China: Evidence for a green rust precursor?

Sun, L., Lechte, M. A., Shi, X., Zhou, X., Zhou, L., Fang, H., Xie, B., Wu, M., & Tang, D. (2021) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2022-7981 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

From minerals to metabolisms: Evidence for life before oxygen from the geological record

Johnson, J. E. (2019) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.01.047 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

The Archean–Hadean Earth: Modern paradigms and ancient processes

Mueller, P. A., & Nutman, A. P. (2017) · Geological Society of America eBooks · doi:10.1130/2017.2523(03 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Deformation-induced silica redistribution in banded iron formation, Hamersley Province, Australia

Egglseder, M. S., Cruden, A. R., Tomkins, A. G., & Wilson, C. J. L. (2016) · Lithos · doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2016.09.033 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Iron‐Silicate Chemical Garden Morphology and Silicate Reactivity with Alpha‐Keto Acids

Weber, J. M., & Barge, L. M. (2021) · ChemSystemsChem · doi:10.1002/syst.202000058 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

A seawater origin for greenalite in iron formation

Nke, A. Y., Tsikos, H., Mason, P. R. D., Mhlanga, X., & Tostevin, R. (2024) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2024.118917 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Impact of silica on the identity of minerals formed in Archean oceans during Fe cycling by cyanobacteria and iron(III)-reducing bacteria

Dreher, C., Schad, M., Duda, J., Fischer, S., Shuster, J., Li, Y., Konhauser, K. O., & Kappler, A. A. (2025) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2025.07.023 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

A New Depositional Framework for Massive Iron Formations After the Great Oxidation Event

Eyster, A. E., Brengman, L. A., Nichols, C. I. O., Levitt, Z., Wilcots, J., & Bergmann, K. (2021) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2020gc009113 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Nanoscale Anatomy of Iron‐Silica Self‐Organized Membranes: Implications for Prebiotic Chemistry

Kotopoulou, E., López‐Haro, M., Calvino, J. J., & Garcı́a-Ruiz, J. M. (2020) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202012059 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Rare earth element and yttrium (REY) geochemistry of 3.46–2.45 Ga greenalite-bearing banded iron formations: New insights into iron deposition and ancient ocean chemistry

Muhling, J. R., Gilbert, S., & Rasmussen, B. (2023) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121789 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Siderite precipitation in Paleoarchean oceans during hydrothermal venting

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., & Tosca, N. J. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.ady6851 · Cited by 6 · see citing works

Iron precipitation under controlled oxygen flow: Mineralogical implications for BIF precursors in the Archean ocean

Chorney, A., & Chemtob, S. M. (2022) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.121279 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Past and present dynamics of the iron biogeochemical cycle

Dauphas, N., Heard, A. W., Rêgo, E. S., Rouxel, O. J., Marin‐Carbonne, J., Pasquier, V., Bekker, A., & Rowley, D. B. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99762-1.00059-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Comment on “Early Archean biogeochemical iron cycling and nutrient availability: New insights from a 3.5 Ga land-sea transition” by Clark M. Johnson, Xin-Yuan Zheng, Tara Djokic, Martin J. Van Kranendonk, Andrew D. Czaja, Eric E. Roden, Brian L. Beard, 2022, Earth-Science Reviews, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103992

Rasmussen, B., & Muhling, J. R. (2022) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104088 · Cited by 6 · see citing works

Near-equilibrium kinetics in the Fe(II)-silicate system and the significance of nanoparticle greenalite in Archaean Iron Formations

Sevgen, S., Retzmann, A., Nightingale, M. J., de Obeso, J. C., Zhang, Q., Fleming, I., Tostevin, R., Tosca, N. J., & Tutolo, B. M. (2025) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2025.02.015 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

Flood basalt origin for Earth's largest Paleoarchean banded iron formation

Wright, J. K., Basu, A. R., & Shukla, Y. (2024) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g52728.1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Greenalite: A Tiny Crystal with a Big Story

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., & Tosca, N. J. (2025) · Elements · doi:10.2138/gselements.21.3.163 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Apatite Lu–Hf dating of late Archean banded iron formations

Lan, Z., Glorie, S., Löhr, S., Wang, R., & Shen, B. (2025) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g52919.1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

The Control of End‐Member Iron‐to‐Sulfide Ratios on Hydrothermal Plume Geochemistry at the Rainbow, Broken Spur, and Lost City Vent Fields in the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge

Sevgen, S., Bris, N. L., & Yücel, M. (2025) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2025gc012370 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Early Pleistocene banded iron-rich sedimentary rocks at Cape Vani, Milos Island, Greece: A modern analogue of Precambrian banded iron formations?

Sun, S., Klemd, R., & Voudouris, P. C. (2022) · Sedimentary Geology · doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2022.106198 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Mysteries of metallome evolution: Integrating insights from the Earth and life sciences

Rico, K. I., Garcia, A. K., Saito, M. A., Kaçar, B., & Anbar, A. D. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99762-1.00143-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Evidence for abundant organic matter in a Neoarchean banded iron formation

Peng, Z., Nan, J., Zhang, L., Poulton, S. W., Zhou, J., Yuan, Y., Ta, K., Wang, C., & Zhai, M. (2023) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2023-8927 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Deposition of a newly identified Mesoproterozoic iron formation from the Dabie orogen: Influenced by high-T hydrothermal fluid and redox stratification

Hu, J., Jin, W., Tian, Y., Deng, X., Li, S., Kong, L., Santosh, M., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Xu, D., et al. (2023) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2023.107043 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Iron and phosphorus cycling under ferruginous conditions

Thompson, J. A. (2018) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Petrology of Precambrian metagranites and heavy mineral chemistry of the Olounou area within the Cameroon mineral belt (Ntem complex, South Cameroon): relationships with the Fe mineralization

Mboudou, G. M. M., Owona, S., Jean-Lavenir, N. M., Agyingi, C. M., Ateba, M. C. B., & Mengu, E. E. (2021) · Geochemistry Exploration Environment Analysis · doi:10.1144/geochem2021-006 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

The Possible Role of Anoxic Alkaline High Subcritical Water in the Formation of Ferric Minerals, Methane and Disordered Graphitic Carbon in a BARB3 Drilled Sample of the 3.4 Ga Buck Reef Chert

Bassez, M.-P. (2023) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-023-09638-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Metals for microbes in the ancient sea

Johnson, J. E. (2023) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/s41561-023-01314-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Snapshot of a Paleoarchean seafloor: Evidence from 3.43-3.35 Ga Strelley Pool chert-pebble conglomerate for deposition, silicification, and erosion of hydrothermal greenalite-apatite precipitates

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., & Sadekov, A. (2024) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2024.107531 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Greenalite-Chamosite composition, geothermometry and oxygen fugacity variations in pisolitic ironstone and carbonates of the Chilpi Group: implication on Paleoproterozoic seawater chemistry

Mohanty, S., & Mishra, P. K. (2023) · Physics and Chemistry of Minerals · doi:10.1007/s00269-023-01258-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Anoxic and iron-rich seawater conditions facilitated reverse weathering: Evidence from the Mesoproterozoic siliceous rocks

Ke, Z., Shi, X., Sun, L., Xie, B., Chen, J., Zhong, Q., Wang, M., Wang, X., Zhou, L., Ma, J., et al. (2025) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2024-9543 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Iron formations: unique archives to reconstruct the Precambrian Earth

Smith, A. J. B., & Viehmann, S. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95547-8.00023-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

A unique Mesozoic greenalite deposit as a window into the genesis of iron formations through time

Lyu, Y. J., Zhou, M.-F., Hu, R., & Liu, Z. R. (2026) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g54040.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Comment on bg-2021-253

(2021) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-2021-253-rc1

Comment on bg-2021-253

(2021) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-2021-253-rc2

Widespread deposition of greenalite to form Banded Iron Formations before the Great Oxidation Event

Muhling, J. R., & Rasmussen, B. (2020) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105619 · Cited by 46 · see citing works

Dust to dust: evidence for the formation of “primary” hematite dust in banded iron formations via oxidation of iron silicate nanoparticles

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., Suvorova, A., & Krapež, B. (2016) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.07.003 · Cited by 80 · see citing works

Iron silicate microgranules as precursor sediments to 2.5-billion-year-old banded iron formations

Rasmussen, B., Meier, D. B., Krapež, B., & Muhling, J. R. (2013) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g33828.1 · Cited by 101 · see citing works

Greenalite precipitation linked to the deposition of banded iron formations downslope from a late Archean carbonate platform

Rasmussen, B., Muhling, J. R., Suvorova, A., & Krapež, B. (2017) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.12.005 · Cited by 111 · see citing works

Microbial Iron Cycling During the Deposition of Banded Iron Formation Minerals – Understanding the Interrelated Effects of Iron, Silica, Phosphate, and Nickel on the Biogeochemistry of Early Earth’s Oceans

Dreher, C. (2026) · doi:10.15496/publikation-119906