Iron formation: the sedimentary product of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes

Bekker, A.; Slack, J. F.; Planavsky, N.; Krapez, B.; Hofmann, A.; Konhauser, K. O.; Rouxel, O. J.

doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.467

Cited by 1,013Paleontology and Stratigraphy of FossilsGeochemistry and Elemental AnalysisGeological and Geochemical Analysis

Iron formation: the sedimentary product of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes

Bekker, A., Slack, J. F., Planavsky, N., Krapez, B., Hofmann, A., Konhauser, K. O., Rouxel, O. J.·2010·Economic Geology

DOI 10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.467

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Abstract

Iron formations are economically important sedimentary rocks that are most common in Precambrian sedi-mentary successions. Although many aspects of their origin remain unresolved, it is widely accepted that sec-ular changes in the style of their deposition are linked to environmental and geochemical evolution of Earth. Two types of Precambrian iron formations have been recognized with respect to their depositional setting. Al-goma-type iron formations are interlayered with or stratigraphically linked to submarine-emplaced volcanic rocks in greenstone belts and, in some cases, with volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. In contrast, larger Superior-type iron formations are developed in passive-margin sedimentary rock successions and gener-ally lack direct relationships with volcanic rocks. The early distinction made between these two iron-formation types, although mimimized by later studies, remains a valid first approximation. Texturally, iron formations were also divided into two groups. Banded iron formation (BIF) is dominant in Archean to earliest Paleopro-terozoic successions, whereas granular iron formation (GIF) is much more common in Paleoproterozoic suc-cessions. Secular changes in the style of iron-formation deposition, identified more than 20 years ago, have

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Superior-type iron formations can be very laterally extensive, with original aerial extents estimated in some cases to be over 100,000 km2.
“Superior-type IFs can be very laterally extensive, with original aerial extents estimated in some cases to be over 100,000 km 2 (Isley, 1995; Bekker et al., 2010).”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
The sulfide-facies iron formations described by James (1954) are now believed to be pyritic carbonaceous shales and ferruginous slates, and therefore do not represent a chemical precipitate.
“The sulfide-facies IF described by James (1954) are now believed to be pyritic carbonaceous shales and ferruginous slates, and therefore do not represent a chemical precipitate (Bekker et al., 2010).”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Most IF precursor sediments were deposited in offshore environments with limited siliciclastic input and low sedimentation rates.
“(ii) most IF precursor sediments were deposited in offshore environments with limited siliciclastic input and low sedimentation rates”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
The size of the DIC reservoir was significantly larger in the Archaean than in the modern ocean.
“there is nearly unanimous agreement that (i) the size of the DIC reservoir was significantly larger in the Archaean than in the modern ocean”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Although IF sedimentation was likely highly pulsed and variable, slow net accumulation rates were probably linked to a low siliciclastic flux that allowed for accumulation of pure chemical sediments.
“although IF sedimentation was likely highly pulsed and variable (Bekker et al., 2010; Haugaard et al., 2016a), slow net accumulation rates were probably linked to a low siliciclastic flux that allowed for accumulation of pure chemical sediments”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010

Proportionally more Fe(III) existed than organic carbon buried with IF precursor sediments relative to typical modern continental margin sediments.
“(iii) proportionally more Fe(III) existed than organic carbon buried with IF precursor sediments relative to typical modern continental margin sediments”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
The absence of iron-oxide exhalites is unlikely to reflect preservational bias because slightly younger Cu-rich VMS deposits in arc settings contain abundant hematite and magnetite exhalites, jasper, and IF.
“This observation is unlikely to reflect preservational bias because slightly younger 1.84, 1.79, and 1.78 Ga Cu-rich VMS deposits that similarly formed in arc settings contain abundant hematite and magnetite exhalites, jasper, and IF”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Large sedimentary iron deposits that formed during the time gap (1.85-0.75 Ga) are absent, but several small IFs and Fe-rich lithologies in sedimentary rock-dominated successions are known.
“Large sedimentary iron deposits that formed during this time gap (1.85-0.75 Ga) are indeed absent, but several small IFs and Fe-rich lithologies in sedimentary rock-dominated successions are known”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Iron formation deposits ca. 2.3-0.8 Ga are predominantly granular iron formation (GIF).
“Most deposits before 2.4 Ga comprise BIF; those ca. 2.3-0.8 Ga are predominantly GIF; Neoproterozoic Rapitan-type iron formation (~0.715 Ga) are associated with glacial deposits.”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Neoproterozoic Rapitan-type iron formation (~0.715 Ga) is associated with glacial deposits.
“Most deposits before 2.4 Ga comprise BIF; those ca. 2.3-0.8 Ga are predominantly GIF; Neoproterozoic Rapitan-type iron formation (~0.715 Ga) are associated with glacial deposits.”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Most iron formation deposits before 2.4 Ga comprise banded iron formation (BIF).
“Most deposits before 2.4 Ga comprise BIF; those ca. 2.3-0.8 Ga are predominantly GIF; Neoproterozoic Rapitan-type iron formation (~0.715 Ga) are associated with glacial deposits.”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Deposition of IF appears tied to periods of enhanced magmatic and hydrothermal activity associated with large igneous province emplacement that delivered large amounts of ferrous iron to anoxic deep oceans.
“Deposition of IF appears tied to periods of enhanced magmatic and hydrothermal activity (associated with large igneous province emplacement; Isley and Abbot, 1999) that delivered large amounts of ferrous iron to anoxic deep oceans (Bekker et al., 2010;2014).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
BIF dominate the Archean and are more important in terms of total IF tonnage.
“BIF dominate the Archean and are more important in terms of total IF tonnage (Bekker et al., 2010).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010
Dissolved Fe concentrations in Archean and Paleoproterozoic oceans must have been high to permit formation of extensive IF via Fe(II) oxidation by anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthesis.
“Dissolved Fe concentrations in the Archean and Paleoproterozoic oceans would have had to have been high in order to permit the formation of extensive IF via Fe(II) oxidation by anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthesis (Bekker et al., 2010).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2010

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The rise of oxygen in Earth's early ocean and atmosphere
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Cobalt and marine redox evolution
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Cu isotopes in marine black shales record the Great Oxidation Event
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Authors: Bekker, A., Slack, J. F., Planavsky, N., Krapez, B., Hofmann, A., Konhauser, K. O., & Rouxel, O. J.
ORCID: Bekker, A.
Slack, J. F.
Planavsky, N.
Hofmann, A.
Konhauser, K. O.
Rouxel, O. J.
Venue: Economic Geology
Publisher: Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Published: 2010-05-01
Volume: 105
Issue: 3
Pages: 467-508
ISSN: 0361-0128 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.467
OpenAlex: W2168225982
Semantic Scholar: 2221663277a66ffb05c10389897649a9320dce31
Cited by: 1,013
References: 354
Citations by year: 2026: 51 · 2025: 74 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 70 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 51 · 2012: 36
FWCI: 29.66
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Economic Geology (publishedVersion)
eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
Keywords: iron-formation, banded iron formations, greenstone belts, volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, Archean, Paleoproterozoic, mantle processes, tectonic setting, oceanic processes, biosphere

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Iron formation: the sedimentary product of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes

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