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The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level
Open accessAbstract
Objective: It is evident that the gut microbiota and factors that influence its composition and activity effect human metabolic, immunological and developmental processes. We previously reported that extreme physical activity with associated dietary adaptations, such as that pursued by professional athletes, is associated with changes in faecal microbial diversity and composition relative to that of individuals with a more sedentary lifestyle. Here we address the impact of these factors on the functionality/metabolic activity of the microbiota which reveals even greater separation between exercise and a more sedentary state. Design: Metabolic phenotyping and functional metagenomic analysis of the gut microbiome of professional international rugby union players (n=40) and controls (n=46) was carried out and results were correlated with lifestyle parameters and clinical measurements (eg, dietary habit and serum creatine kinase, respectively). Results: Athletes had relative increases in pathways (eg, amino acid and antibiotic biosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism) and faecal metabolites (eg, microbial produced short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) acetate, propionate and butyrate) associated with enhanced muscle turnover (fitness) and overall health when compared with control groups. Conclusions: Differences in faecal microbiota between athletes and sedentary controls show even greater separation at the metagenomic and metabolomic than at compositional levels and provide added insight into the diet–exercise–gut microbiota paradigm.
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“The impact of the athletes' increased protein intake compared to both control groups was evident in the metabolomic phenotyping results.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“of the total 19,300 pathways, 98 were significantly altered between the three cohorts (p < 0.05)”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“Furthermore, athletes have an enriched profile of SCFAs, previously associated with numerous health benefits and a lean phenotype.[33][34][35]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“The relative abundances of pathways related to fundamental metabolic function-amino acid biosynthesis, vitamin biosynthesis, and lipid biosynthesis-were higher on average within the high BMI control group when compared to the athlete group.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Notably, from a functional perspective, the microbiota of the low BMI group was more similar to the athletes.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Comparing athletes to both high and low BMI controls, a greater number of pathways correlating to specific macronutrients with the controls suggests a shift in the dynamics of these varied metabolic functions.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“SCFAs were also correlated with pathway relative abundances, with all SCFAs associating with considerably more pathways in the athletes versus the controls (Fig. 4C).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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“Beta-alanine betaine was higher in both faecal and urine samples of athletes.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“with the high BMI control group having the lowest average abundance scores across 31 metabolic pathway categories (the exceptions being Vitamin Biosynthesis (VB), Lipid Biosynthesis (LB), and Amino Acid Biosynthesis (AAB) categories).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“The athlete group had the highest mean abundance across 29 of the 34 metabolic categories”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“Athletes' 1 H-NMR metabolic phenotypes were characterised by higher levels of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), L-carnitine, dimethylglycine, O-acetyl carnitine, proline betaine, creatinine, acetoacetate, 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid, acetone, N-methylnicotinate, N-methylnicotinamide, phenylacetylglutamine (PAG) and 3-methylhistidine in urine samples and higher levels of propionate, acetate, butyrate, tr”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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In the paper
“Athletes have an increased abundance of pathways that-giving an equivalent amount of expression activity-could be exploited by the host for potential health benefit, including biosynthesis of organic cofactors and antibiotics, as well as carbohydrate degradation and secondary metabolite metabolism compared to both control groups.[32]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] source
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In the paper
“Separation according to group membership was further illustrated through Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA), with statistical support of the significant separation between the athletes and both control groups (p < 0.05) (Fig. 2B).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“Roseburia was positively correlated with acetate (p = 0.004) and butyrate (p = 0.018) while Family XIII Incertae Sedis was positively correlated with isobutyrate (p < 0.001), isovaleric acid (p < 0.001) and valeric acid (p = 0.008)”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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“Furthermore, concentrations of propionate strongly correlated to protein intake while butyrate was shown to have a strong association with intake of dietary fibre (Supplementary Table 6).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“Likewise, the CV-OPLS-DA models comparing faecal samples, although weaker than the urine models, reveal significant differences between athletes and controls by 1 H-NMR analysis (R 2 Y=0.86, Q 2 Y=0.52, Fig. 2D) and HILIC UPLC-MS positive mode analysis (R 2 Y=0.65, Q 2 Y=0.34, Supplementary Fig 2D).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“Subsequently, large-scale functional dissimilarity between athletes and controls was determined and distinct patterns of pathway composition between groups were revealed”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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In the paper
“SCFA levels in faeces measured by targeted GC-MS showed significantly higher levels of acetate (p < 0.001), propionate (p < 0.001), butyrate (p < 0.001) and valerate (p = 0.011) in athletes relative to controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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In the paper
“By-products of dietary protein metabolism (mostly by microbes) including TMAO, carnitines, trimethylamine, 3-Carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and 3-hydroxy-isovaleric acid are all elevated in the athlete cohort.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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In the paper
“Each group was represented by distinct association profiles of the correlation between clinical measurements and metagenomic pathways.Dietary factors, sugars and other carbohydrates, as well as energy intake, provide the majority of the correlation for the control groups whereas the athlete group was predominantly correlated with CK, total bilirubin, and total energy intake.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > [CfB], and Energy Metabolism [EM]) (Supplementary table 2).
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In the paper
“Similarly to these populations, the athletes' diet contained a significantly greater proportion of fish.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Two distinct blocks of proportionately discriminant correlations were observed with isobutyric and isovaleric acids, which were more abundant in the athletes while acetic and butyric acids were more proportionately abundant in controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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In the paper
“Athletes were further characterised by lower levels of glycerate, allantoin and succinate and lower levels of glycine and tyrosine relative to controls in urine and faecal samples, respectively (Supplementary Table 3).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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In the paper
“The same clusters are observed when correlating with individual taxa, in support of previously observed links between SCFAs and numerous metabolic benefits and a lean phenotype.[33][34][35]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Diversity measures are statistically significant between low BMI and athletes (p < 0.049), with statistical significance between all groups (Kruskal Wallis p < 0.05).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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In the paper
“Furthermore, PAG positively correlates with the genus Erysipelotrichaceae Incertae Sedis, which we have previously noted to be present in relatively higher proportions in the athlete group compared to both control groups.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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In the paper
“Heat map of bacterial taxa (family, genus, and species level) that correlate with faecal short-chain fatty acid levels using Spearman's correlation.”
- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
“All taxa shown had a correlation p-value < 0.01.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
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In the paper
“Within the SCFAs, two distinct clusters were observed; acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid correlate with dietary contributors (fibre and protein), while isobutyric acid, isovaleric acid and valeric acid correlate with microbial diversity.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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In the paper
“associated with enhanced muscle turnover (fitness) and overall health when compared to control groups.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Results
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In the paper
“Elevated TMAO has been observed in patients with cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis, highlighting a potential downside to increased protein intake.[15-17,22, 37]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“On the contrary, the athlete microbiome presents a functional capacity that is primed for tissue repair and to harness energy from the diet with increased capacity for carbohydrate, cell structure and nucleotide biosynthesis, reflecting the significant energy demands and high cell-turnover evident in elite sport.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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In the paper
“Participants made no report of gastrointestinal (GI) distress or alterations of GI transit time throughout the course of the initial study.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > RESULTS
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In the paper
“Approval for this study was granted by the Cork Clinical Research Ethics Committee.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Study population
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In the paper
“3-hydroxy-isovaleric acid (potentially from egg consumption) which has been demonstrated to have efficacy for inhibiting muscle wasting when used in conjunction of physical exercise.[40]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Stratton, 2006, Lymphocyte propionyl-CoA carboxylase and its activation by biotin are sensitive indicators of marginal biotin deficiency in humans, Am J Clin Nutr source
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In the paper
“All presented p values were corrected for multiple comparisons using the Benjamini-Hochberg False Discovery Rate (pFDR) method.[47]”
- Also stated in: § Metabolic profiling · plain
“P-values were adjusted for multiple testing using the Benjamini-Hochberg False Discovery Rate (pFDR) method.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Metagenomic statistical and bioinformatic analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] source
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- Also stated in: § Metabolic profiling · plain
In the paper
“It is notable that PAG-a microbial conversion product of phenylalanine-has been associated with a lean phenotype, and is increased in the athletes.[42]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42] source
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In the paper
“The compound is also commonly used as a supplement by athletes to increase exercise-induced gains in muscle size, muscle strength, and lean body mass, reduce exercise-induced muscle damage, and speed recovery from highintensity exercise.[41]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The control participants are representative of a more sedentary lifestyle than the athletes.
“The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These findings support the role of A muciniphila in metabolic regulation.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“For example, levels of SCFAs were significantly higher in athletes compared with controls,”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“Among the individual species that differed between athletes and controls, A muciniphila was found to be enriched by 16s rRNA and metagenomic sequencing analyses, as well as in the metabolic pathway analysis.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“The athletes were found to have a more diverse gut microbiome than the controls.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“A high-fiber diet and exercise are associated with increased diversity of the gut microbiota and enrichment of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), both of which have been implicated in improved survival following treatment with ICB”
From Hallmarks of response, resistance, and toxicity to immune checkpoint blockade (2021) · cites this paper as Barton et al., 2018
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
“Levels of glutamine, 7methylxanthine, imidazoleacetic acid, isoquinoline / quinolone were lower in athletes' urinary samples relative to controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
“Metabolites derived from vitamins and recovery supplements common in professional sports, including glutamine, lysine, 4-pyridoxic acid, and nicotinamide, are also raised in the athlete group.”
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The effects of exercise intensity on the gut microbiota of college basketball players
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“식이섬유의 박테리아 발효로 인해 생성되는 단쇄지방산 (short chain fatty acids, SCFAs)인 부티레이트는 결장 상피세포(colonic epithelial cell)의 증식을 촉진시키고 장벽(gut barrier)의 건강유지 및 숙 주의 면역 시스템과 유전자 발현을 조절하는 것으로 여겨진다[41,42].”
InfluentialThe Relationship between the Gut Microbiota and Exercise: A Narrative Review
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BackgroundFocus on gut microbiota in age-associated body changes
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Akkermansia mucinifila and the part that it plays in metabolic disturbance
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BackgroundRisk of physical activity and hepatobiliary diseases: east meets west
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ResultInfographic. Athlete health and performance: no guts no glory
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“In addition, both rugby athletes and control subjects with a low body mass index (BMI) had higher proportions of bacteria of the genus Akkermansia [13].”
Pharmaceutical significance and recent developments in utilizing bacterial enzymes
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“…a myriad of bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses colonizing the host gastrointestinal tract and influencing many host systems, such as metabolism (Barton et al., 2017; Ryan et al., 2017), immune function (Kau et al., 2011; Kundu et al., 2017), hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis response, and…”
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The Importance of Microbiota in Sports Nutrition
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“Similarly, microbial communities in professional athletes differed from those in sedentary controls, especially at the functional metabolic level [28].”
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Olszowiec, Z., Kowalenko, K., Szadkowski, J., et al. (2026) · Quality in Sport · doi:10.12775/qs.2026.71.74823
“This may explain why metagenomic pathways and metabolomic outputs have separated athletes from controls more consistently than genus-level abundance in several studies [16,17,22].”
Saragiotto, G. K., de Oliveira, L. F. V., dos Santos, B. G. T., Sanches, R. N., de Oliveira, M. M., Freire, F. C., Carvalho, R. D. D. O., Sivieri, K., Sartoratto, A., Cabral, L., et al. (2026) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1080/15502783.2026.2725874
“Athletes may also exhibit higher fecal SCFA concentrations, particularly acetate, possibly related to higher dietary fiber intake and higher levels of SCFA-producing bacteria [3,9,11,33].”
Strengthening muscle for healthy ageing: innovative treatments for sarcopenia
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“In highly trained athletes, gut microbiota responses may be influenced by multiple factors, including training load, dietary intake, host metabolism, recovery status, and inter-individual variability [28,29], which may partly explain why the initial difference was not maintained.”
Mechanisms of exercise-induced improvement in drug addiction via gut microbiota
Liao, S., Xueqiang, W. A. N. G., Zhang, T., & Jiong, L. U. O. (2026) · Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences) · doi:10.3724/zdxbyxb-2025-0859
What does the gut microbiome teach us about osteoarthritis development and progression?
Dyson, G., Brawner, C., & Jeffries, M. A. (2026) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology · doi:10.1016/j.berh.2026.102202
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“Moreover, shifts in the relative abundances of these taxa correlate significantly with lower BF% and higher lean body mass (LBM), suggesting that athlete-associated gut microbial signatures may contribute to favorable body composition and metabolic phenotypes [30,31].”
Exerkines in precision management of metabolic diseases
Jin, L., Lin, Y., Zheng, Y., Wang, A., Liao, P., Luo, Y., Sui, Z., Ni, X., Zhang, J., Shen, Q., et al. (2026) · Chinese Medical Journal · doi:10.1097/cm9.0000000000004200
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“Observational studies have revealed that high-level athletes have increased microbial α -diversity, lower inflammatory markers, and a higher microbial production of SCFAs (Boisseau et al., 2022; Campbell and Wisniewski, 2017; Petersen et al., 2017; Barton et al., 2017).”
Owczarenko, K., & Szada-Borzyszkowski, K. (2026) · Quality in Sport · doi:10.12775/qs.2026.68.74432
“Evidence from elite cohorts confirms these deep-seated differences in taxonomy and metabolic pathways, pointing to a specialized, exercise-associated microbiome with functional characteristics that may support adaptation to high energy demands and repeated physical stress [10, 21].”
Biazzo, M., Jaegher, S. D., Morganti, L., Kirithras, E., D’Aguanno, M., & Podrini, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2026.1868776
“Subsequent studies have confirmed that professional athletes exhibit gut microbiota compositions that differ from those of sedentary individuals, even when accounting for dietary intake, suggesting that exercise itself contributes to microbiota variation (4).”
Kuang, X., & Zheng, X. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27167291
“Professional athletes have exhibited microbial communities with greater representation of metabolic pathways related to SCFA production than sedentary participants [88,89].”
Exercise-driven microbiome changes regulate host immunity
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“Differences be-tween athletes and sedentary individuals [147,148], findings on microorganisms involved in lactate metabolism [149] and the ability of exercise to alter the microbiota [150] suggest that physical activity reshapes not only muscle but also associated systems.”
Ai, X., Liu, R., Lv, Y., Chen, L., Duan, R., Ma, X., Li, L., Ding, H., Shen, H., Hu, Y. R., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2026.1826138
“In elite athletes, metabolic pathways related to carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid synthesis, and short-chain fatty acid production are frequently enriched (Petersen et al., 2017; Cronin et al., 2018; O'Donovan et al., 2020).”
Świderska, M., Papińska, J., Buziak, J., Lengier, M., Małyszek, P., Pastuszak, F. C., Świstak, S., Powęska, N., Zych, S., & Pielacha, J. (2026) · International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science · doi:10.31435/ijitss.3(51).2026.6234
Carlone, J., Sgrò, P., Parisi, A., et al. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18142403
“In athletes, this microbial ecosystem, which may itself function as an endocrine organ, displays distinct features compared with sedentary individuals, characterized by greater microbial diversity and specific taxonomic signatures associated with athletic performance [12,13].”
InfluentialLiu, X.-X., Zhao, X.-Y., Li, H.-Y., et al. (2026) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology15141193
“Previous studies have shown that compared with the non-athlete control group, elite rugby players have a higher microbial diversity and short-chain fatty acid levels in their gut microbiota [6,7].”
Mental health and gut-brain crosstalk: implications for depression and Alzheimer's disease
Skourti, K., Katsaitis, F., Pavlidi, P., Anesti, M., Balla, J., Emvalomatis, A., Kokras, N., Dalla, C., & Sotiropoulos, I. (2026) · Neuroscience Applied · doi:10.1016/j.nsa.2026.107023
Crespo-Garcia, C., Borsati, A., Taaffe, D. R., Peddle‐McIntyre, C. J., Campbell, J. P., Avancini, A., Jeffery, E., Galvao, D. A., & Newton, R. U. (2026) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-026-02481-w
Yang, W., Liu, Y., Wang, H., & Yang, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2026.1830033 · Cited by 1
Chung, Y. (2026) · Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1249/tjx.0000000000000383
Olek, R. A., & Radak, Z. O. (2026) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-026-06297-4
Comparative metagenomic analysis of gut microbiomes in Yunnan ponies and Dutch warmblood horses
Cha, J., Yang, J., Zhang, Z., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2026.1807081
Hoseini, R., Hoseini, Z., Heydarpour, B., & Faraji, M. (2026) · Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11033-026-12035-y · Cited by 1
“Probiotics and prebiotics, once rele-gated to the realm of gut health, are now being investigated for their capacity to modulate muscle metabolism, immune function, and even cognitive performance [25].”
Rui, L. I., Li-Yun, S. H. A., You-Guan, H. E. N. G., & Shen, W.-Q. (2026) · Shengming kexue · doi:10.3724/cbls.2026077
Kahve, A., & Çalışan, H. Y. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-55444-6
“These effects include increased microbial diversity and enhanced production of short-chain fatty acids 8,9 .”
Saifi, A., Kalpana, K., Khanna, G. L., Rao, B. D., Rakhra, G., & Tanwar, E. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-54716-5
“For example, Veillonella atypica has been shown to metabolise exercise-induced lactate into propionate, thereby enhancing endurance performance in experimental models 55 .”
Biliński, K., Wiśniewski, K., Rafner, L., Witko, P., & Gaweł-Dąbrowska, D. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18101523
“Several studies have investigated the relationship between physical activity, independent of dietary patterns, and GM composition [100,105–109].”
Gao, R., Wang, J., Song, J., Zhang, W., & Quan, L. (2026) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2026.1790697
“…states correlate with increased alpha diversity (Estaki et al., 2016; Mörkl et al., 2017), enrichment of beneficial microbial taxa (Estaki et al., 2016; Jang et al., 2019; O'Donovan et al., 2020), and elevated fecal concentrations of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) (Barton et al., 2018).”
Filardo, S., Antonucci, A., Albano, M., Chicarella, G., Vitali, M., Sessa, R., Protano, C., & Pietro, M. D. (2026) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos17040368
Thomas, R., Williams, M. M. A., Newyton, R. U., Kenfield, S. A., & Aldous, J. (2026) · Journal of Ageing and Longevity · doi:10.3390/jal6020035 · Cited by 2
“This finding supports previous studies which have highlighted the importance of a healthy gut for athletes and the role for probiotic supplements [34–37].”
Sreenath, S. (2026) · International Journal of Zoological Investigations · doi:10.33745/ijzi.2026.v12i02.016
“Similar microbial community patterns have been proposed, looking at sedentary adults participating in exercise programmes, and focused on cyclists (Bressa et al ., 2017; Petersen et al ., 2017; Cronin et al ., 2018).”
Belmonte, G., Gervasi, M., Agostini, D., Zeppa, S. D., Formiglio, E., Mitri, I. R. D., Fernández-Peña, E., Bartolacci, A., Stocchi, V., Paoli, A., et al. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18060991
“Evidence suggests that athletes exhibit significantly greater intestinal mycobiome pathways than sedentary counterparts, reflecting a physiological adaptation driven by rigorous training regimens and specialized dietary patterns [13–15].”
Hu, S., Chen, T., Liu, X., Wu, Z., & Wang, X. (2026) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-026-07744-8 · Cited by 1
Metabolic adaptation without microbiome remodelling: Rethinking early host–microbiome dynamics
Kadariswantiningsih, I. N., Jayanthi, R., & Arima, E. (2026) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp290837
“…metabolic adaptation is predominantly host-driven, whereas micro-biome contributions may emerge only over longer time scales or under sustained dietary compositional change, as reported in other intervention studies (Allen et al., 2018; Barton et al., 2018; Canfora et al., 2019; Kern et al., 2020).”
Effect of bedrest on the human gut and oral microbiome: implications for frailty
Alvaro-Fuss, M., DeClercq, V., Blodgett, J. M., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.64898/2025.12.21.695811
“Conversely, higher gut microbiome α -diversity is often observed in athletes and physically active men and women, correlating with improved cardiorespiratory and metabolic health [86, 87, 88].”
THE ROLE OF GUT MICROBIOME IN PREVENTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Bajkacz, A., Piotrowicz, K., Piotrowicz, H., Kurzeja, J., Kraśnik, W., Jankowska, O., Rogala, A., & Osmólska, J. (2025) · International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science · doi:10.31435/ijitss.4(48).2025.4342
Zhang, Z., Ye, B., He, J., Li, X., Li, S., Zhao, J., Chen, W., Zhang, Q., Zhao, W., Yang, J., et al. (2025) · mSystems · doi:10.1128/msystems.01433-25
“Similarly, we observed that exercise is associated with shifts in gut microbial functional pathways, including amino acid biosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism (26).”
Wang, J., Lu, X., Zhao, Y., Jiang, Z., Wang, J., Wang, Z., & Zhang, X. (2025) · Food Science & Nutrition · doi:10.1002/fsn3.71245
“…indicates that exercise training induces beneficial shifts in gut microbial composition, promoting the proliferation of commensal bacteria while inhibiting pathogenic taxa, which consequently enhances gut health and metabolic efficiency (Motiani et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2021; Barton et al. 2018).”
Aras-Hira, E., Santiago, M., Casto, N., Weng, K., Pham, L. D., Oliver, P., Erfe, M. C. B., Barsa, C., Craft, N., Scheiman, J., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.11.03.25339441
“…studies confirmed these patterns across diverse athletic populations, with Barton et al. (2018) demonstrating that athletes exhibit elevated fecal short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentrations, particularly acetate, propionate, and butyrate — metabolites with known neuroactive properties [11].”
The Impact of Physical Activity on the Course of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
Grzebinoga, A., Szlążek, J., Zagalska, M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Education, Health and Sport · doi:10.12775/jehs.2025.82.60285
“Patients suffering from IBD typically complain of abdominal pain, bloating, watery and bloody diarrhea, and systemic symptoms such as anorexia, malaise, fatigue, weight loss, fever, and extraintestinal manifestations [10, 11].”
Effects of Probiotic Supplementation on Endurance Performance
Upadhyaya, S., Das, S. K., Sri, T. H., & Cherian, K. S. (2025) · Nutrition Today · doi:10.1097/nt.0000000000000737
From human to superhuman: the impact of the microbiome on physiology
Keely, S. J., Cotter, P. D., Wahlstrom, A. M., Schellekens, H., Weinkove, D., & Barrett, K. E. (2025) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp287883 · Cited by 2
Self-citationKoryukalov, Y. I., Lapshin, M. S., Kondashevskaya, М. V., Bakhareva, A. S., & Savinih, E. J. (2024) · Sports medicine research and practice · doi:10.47529/2223-2524.2024.2.8 · Cited by 1
Solouki, S., Gorgani‐Firuzjaee, S., Jafary, H., & Delfan, M. (2024) · Annals of Military and Health Sciences Research · doi:10.5812/amh-147901
The role of Gut Microbiota and Probiotics in physical performance of athletes - Literature review
Skupińska, O., Wojtczak, K., Antczak, J., Kajka, A., Hamerska, J., Ruta, D., Bocianiak, B., Hamerska, L., Lipska, J., & Fenrych, U. (2024) · Quality in Sport · doi:10.12775/qs.2024.16.52845
“The human microbiome is the agglomeration of trillions of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses with the vast majority living in the intestines and is categorized by groups called phyla [1].”
BackgroundResultHealth Implications from the HIIT-Caused Alteration of Gut Microbiota
Zhu, H. (2023) · Highlights in Science Engineering and Technology · doi:10.54097/hssn9f87
“Another study by Barton and colleagues highlighted the contribution of exercise-induced changes in gut microbiota to optimizing metabolic health [5].”
BackgroundInfluentialMicrobiome Features Associated with Performance Measures in Non-Athletic and Athletic IndividualsPreprint
Humińska‐Lisowska, K., Zielińska, K., Mieszkowski, J., Michałowska‐Sawczyn, M., Cięszczyk, P., Łabaj, P. P., Wasąg, B., Frączek, B., Grzywacz, A., Kochanowicz, A., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.06.10.544446 · Cited by 1
“These include amino acid and 66 antibiotic biosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism [17].”
BackgroundBaldanzi, G., Sayols-Baixeras, S., Ekblom-Bak, E., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.06.01.23290817
“Likewise, a previous 328 study has reported an increased abundance of carbohydrate degradation pathways in athletes.(52) These 329 findings could be due to lower fibre content in the diet of sedentary individuals, which we aimed to address 330”
BackgroundKviatcovsky, D., & Elinav, E. (2023) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2023.01.007
The Universal Endurance Microbiome?Preprint
Olbricht, H., Twadell, K., Sandel, B., Stephens, C. M., & Whittall, J. B. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.07.20.500882 · Cited by 3
Why Do These Microbes Like Me and How Could There Be a Link with Cardiovascular Risk Factors?
Sawicka, E., Moniuszko-Malinowska, A. M., & Kamiński, K. A. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11030599
“Furthermore, Lactobacilli, Clostridium cluster IV, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Archaea, and Akkermansia significantly increased, while Clostridium cluster XIVa and the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio decreased [23].”
ResultInfluentialGut microbiota related to nutrition and physical activity: an integrative review
Campos, L. F. (2021) · International Journal of Nutrology · doi:10.54448/ijn22102
“There has also been an increase in Methanobrevibacter smithii in professional cyclists compared to amateurs, a microbe that uses H2 in the colon to form short-chain amino acids and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) [19].”
BackgroundSuzuki, H. (2021) · Digestive Endoscopy · doi:10.1111/den.14161
Ebrahimi, E., Golshahi, M., Yazdi, S., & Pirnia, M. M. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.98370 · Cited by 1
Application of novel solid phase extraction-NMR protocols for metabolic profiling of human urine
McGill, D., Chekmeneva, E., Lindon, J. C., Takáts, Z., & Nicholson, J. K. (2019) · Faraday Discussions · doi:10.1039/c8fd00220g
Maillard, F. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/b0de4789z0d6ez4c66z941ezb9d77b11aa42
“De plus, l’effet de l’activité physique sur le microbiote intestinal s’est avéré prometteur aussi bien chez l’animal que chez l’Homme (Allen et al., 2017; Barton et al., 2017; Evans et al., 2014; Monda et al., 2017) et pourrait ainsi optimiser le dialogue intestin- tissu adipeux.”
BackgroundKörperliche Aktivität, Bewegung und Sport bei chronisch-entzündlichen Darmerkrankungen
Wenzl, H. (2018) · Journal für Gastroenterologische und Hepatologische Erkrankungen · doi:10.1007/s41971-018-0035-9
Microbial Community Data Analysis and Prediction Using Deep Learning
张, 冬. (2026) · Advances in Applied Mathematics · doi:10.12677/aam.2026.153082
Research in Exercise Science and Gut Microbiota: A Two-way Relationship
Petriz, B. A., de Almeida, J. A., Ribeiro, F. M., & Franco, O. L. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819265-8.00066-8
Gut Microbiology – A Relatively Unexplored Domain
O’Donovan, C. M., O’Sullivan, Ó., & Cotter, P. D. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809633-8.09233-5 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Barton, W., Penney, N. C., Cronin, O., Garcia-Perez, I., Molloy, M. G., Holmes, E., Shanahan, F., Cotter, P. D., & O'Sullivan, O.
- Affiliations
- Teagasc - The Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority (IE)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- National University of Ireland (IE)
- Section of Biomolecular Medicine, Division of Computational Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland
- Corresponding author
- Shanahan, Fergus
- ORCID
- Venue
- Gut
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2017-03-30
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 625-633
- ISSN
- 0017-5749 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-3288
- OpenAlex
- W2597526148
- Cited by
- 647
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 92 · 2021: 89 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 12
- FWCI
- 17.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Gut (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Cork Open Research Archive (University College Cork, Ireland) (submittedVersion)
- Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Science Foundation Ireland (11/PI/1137, 13/SIRG/2160, SFI/12/RC/2273)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- gut microbiota, professional athletes, rugby union players, physical activity, sedentary lifestyle, microbial metabolic functions, short-chain fatty acids, fecal metabolites, amino acid biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, antibiotic biosynthesis, serum creatine kinase, functional metagenomics
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Feces, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Athletes
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