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The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level
Open accessAbstract
Objective: It is evident that the gut microbiota and factors that influence its composition and activity effect human metabolic, immunological and developmental processes. We previously reported that extreme physical activity with associated dietary adaptations, such as that pursued by professional athletes, is associated with changes in faecal microbial diversity and composition relative to that of individuals with a more sedentary lifestyle. Here we address the impact of these factors on the functionality/metabolic activity of the microbiota which reveals even greater separation between exercise and a more sedentary state. Design: Metabolic phenotyping and functional metagenomic analysis of the gut microbiome of professional international rugby union players (n=40) and controls (n=46) was carried out and results were correlated with lifestyle parameters and clinical measurements (eg, dietary habit and serum creatine kinase, respectively). Results: Athletes had relative increases in pathways (eg, amino acid and antibiotic biosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism) and faecal metabolites (eg, microbial produced short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) acetate, propionate and butyrate) associated with enhanced muscle turnover (fitness) and overall health when compared with control groups. Conclusions: Differences in faecal microbiota between athletes and sedentary controls show even greater separation at the metagenomic and metabolomic than at compositional levels and provide added insight into the diet–exercise–gut microbiota paradigm.
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“The impact of the athletes' increased protein intake compared to both control groups was evident in the metabolomic phenotyping results.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“of the total 19,300 pathways, 98 were significantly altered between the three cohorts (p < 0.05)”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“Furthermore, athletes have an enriched profile of SCFAs, previously associated with numerous health benefits and a lean phenotype.[33][34][35]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“The relative abundances of pathways related to fundamental metabolic function-amino acid biosynthesis, vitamin biosynthesis, and lipid biosynthesis-were higher on average within the high BMI control group when compared to the athlete group.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Notably, from a functional perspective, the microbiota of the low BMI group was more similar to the athletes.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Comparing athletes to both high and low BMI controls, a greater number of pathways correlating to specific macronutrients with the controls suggests a shift in the dynamics of these varied metabolic functions.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“SCFAs were also correlated with pathway relative abundances, with all SCFAs associating with considerably more pathways in the athletes versus the controls (Fig. 4C).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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“Beta-alanine betaine was higher in both faecal and urine samples of athletes.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“with the high BMI control group having the lowest average abundance scores across 31 metabolic pathway categories (the exceptions being Vitamin Biosynthesis (VB), Lipid Biosynthesis (LB), and Amino Acid Biosynthesis (AAB) categories).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“The athlete group had the highest mean abundance across 29 of the 34 metabolic categories”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“Multiple statistically significant (7,948) (p < 0.05) correlations between the metabolic pathways and SCFAs were identified (Supplementary Table 8).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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“Consistent with previous results, the microbiota of the athletes were significantly more diverse than that of both the low and high BMI control groups at the functional level (Fig. 2A).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“Isobutyrate and isovalerate did not differ significantly between the groups (Fig. 4B, Supplementary Table 5).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“Numerous statistically significant (p < 0.05) associations were identified between pathway abundances and serum Creatine Kinase-an enzymatic marker of muscle activity (CK, IU/L), total bilirubin (IU/L) and dietary macronutrient intake”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > [CfB], and Energy Metabolism [EM]) (Supplementary table 2).
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“our previous findings of an enrichment of Akkermansia in athletes was corroborated by the presence of significantly higher proportions of metabolic pathways associated with this genus in athletes when compared to high BMI controls (p < 0.001).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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“The cross-validated (CV) OPLS-DA models show strong differences between athletes and controls in urine samples by proton nuclear magnetic resonance ( 1 H-NMR) analysis (R 2 Y=0.86, Q 2 Y=0.60, Fig. 2C), hydrophilic interaction ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy (HILIC UPLC-MS) positive mode analysis (R 2 Y=0.85, Q 2 Y=0.74, Supplementary Fig. 2A) and reverse phase ultra-perf”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“The low BMI controls were generally engaged in a modestly active-lifestyle, reflected by their leanness and increased levels of CK.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Athletes had relative increases in pathways (e.g.amino acid and antibiotic biosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism)”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Results
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“Differences in faecal microbiota between athletes and sedentary controls show even greater separation at the metagenomic and metabolomics than at compositional levels”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Conclusion
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“It was noted that athletes excreted proportionately higher levels of the metabolite TMAO, an end product metabolite of dietary protein degradation.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“faecal metabolites (e.g.microbial produced short chain fatty acids [SCFAs] acetate, propionate, and butyrate)”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Results
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“It was also observed that 16 genera correlated with 12 metabolites (Supplementary Table 9).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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“The results confirm enhancement of microbial diversity in athletes compared with controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Additional correlations of metabolic pathways against well-identified metabolites detected from both faecal water (Fig. 5A and 5C) and urine (Fig. 5B and 5D) presented numerous significant associations (6,186 and 13,412, respectively; data not shown) (p < 0.05).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
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“Metabolites derived from vitamins and recovery supplements common in professional sports, including glutamine, lysine, 4-pyridoxic acid, and nicotinamide, are also raised in the athlete group.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Groups show significant variation from one another (Adonis PERMANOVA p < 0.05).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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“Quantitative analysis of SCFAs in faecal samples shows significant increase in measured concentrations of acetate, propionate, butyrate, and valerate in athletes.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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“OPLS-DA displays robust separation between athletes and controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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“It is notable that PAG-a microbial conversion product of phenylalanine-has been associated with a lean phenotype, and is increased in the athletes.[42]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Number of metabolic pathways significantly (Benjamini-Hochberg corrected p < 0.05) correlated with dietary constituents and blood serum metabolites.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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“Numerous metabolites associated with muscle turnover-creatine, 3methylhistidine, and L-valine-and host metabolism-carnitine-are elevated in the athlete groups.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Pathway diversity is increased in the athlete group when compared to low BMI and high BMI controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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“This along with an increased number of detected SCFA pathways in the athletes would be conducive to an enhanced rate of SCFA production [36]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] source
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“Remarkably, our examination of pathway correlation to dietary macronutrients and plasma CK, as a biomarker of exercise, [39] is suggestive of an impact of physical activity upon the utilization of dietary nutrients by the microbiota of the gut.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
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“this study has extended the paradigm to include links between physical fitness and the functional potential of the gut microbiota and its metabolites.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“However, TMAO is also found in high levels in the urine of Japanese populations, [38] who do not have high risk for CVD.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] source
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“as previously presented, the athletes' diet maintained significantly higher quantities of fibre intake [29].”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Rankin A , O'Donavon C , Madigan SM , et al . ‘Microbes in sport’—the potential role of the gut microbiota in athlete health and performance. Br J Sports Med. Published Online First 25 January 2017. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-097227 source
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“Previously, using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, we demonstrated taxonomic differences in gut microbiota between an elite athlete cohort of international-level rugby players and a group of age-matched high (>28 kg/m 2 ) and low (<25 kg/m 2 ) BMI controls.[26]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] source
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“The two groups displayed distinct structures of functional capacity, separately oriented to operate under the different physiological milieu of the two groups.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
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“Athletes display a profile of Short Chain Fatty Acids that alters from that of the controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
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In the paper
“Athletes' 1 H-NMR metabolic phenotypes were characterised by higher levels of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), L-carnitine, dimethylglycine, O-acetyl carnitine, proline betaine, creatinine, acetoacetate, 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid, acetone, N-methylnicotinate, N-methylnicotinamide, phenylacetylglutamine (PAG) and 3-methylhistidine in urine samples and higher levels of propionate, acetate, butyrate, tr”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
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“Athletes have an increased abundance of pathways that-giving an equivalent amount of expression activity-could be exploited by the host for potential health benefit, including biosynthesis of organic cofactors and antibiotics, as well as carbohydrate degradation and secondary metabolite metabolism compared to both control groups.[32]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] source
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“Separation according to group membership was further illustrated through Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA), with statistical support of the significant separation between the athletes and both control groups (p < 0.05) (Fig. 2B).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Roseburia was positively correlated with acetate (p = 0.004) and butyrate (p = 0.018) while Family XIII Incertae Sedis was positively correlated with isobutyrate (p < 0.001), isovaleric acid (p < 0.001) and valeric acid (p = 0.008)”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, concentrations of propionate strongly correlated to protein intake while butyrate was shown to have a strong association with intake of dietary fibre (Supplementary Table 6).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, the CV-OPLS-DA models comparing faecal samples, although weaker than the urine models, reveal significant differences between athletes and controls by 1 H-NMR analysis (R 2 Y=0.86, Q 2 Y=0.52, Fig. 2D) and HILIC UPLC-MS positive mode analysis (R 2 Y=0.65, Q 2 Y=0.34, Supplementary Fig 2D).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subsequently, large-scale functional dissimilarity between athletes and controls was determined and distinct patterns of pathway composition between groups were revealed”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Functional structure of the enteric microbiome correlates with athletic state
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SCFA levels in faeces measured by targeted GC-MS showed significantly higher levels of acetate (p < 0.001), propionate (p < 0.001), butyrate (p < 0.001) and valerate (p = 0.011) in athletes relative to controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By-products of dietary protein metabolism (mostly by microbes) including TMAO, carnitines, trimethylamine, 3-Carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and 3-hydroxy-isovaleric acid are all elevated in the athlete cohort.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each group was represented by distinct association profiles of the correlation between clinical measurements and metagenomic pathways.Dietary factors, sugars and other carbohydrates, as well as energy intake, provide the majority of the correlation for the control groups whereas the athlete group was predominantly correlated with CK, total bilirubin, and total energy intake.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > [CfB], and Energy Metabolism [EM]) (Supplementary table 2).
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly to these populations, the athletes' diet contained a significantly greater proportion of fish.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two distinct blocks of proportionately discriminant correlations were observed with isobutyric and isovaleric acids, which were more abundant in the athletes while acetic and butyric acids were more proportionately abundant in controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Correlating metabonomic and metagenomic results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Athletes were further characterised by lower levels of glycerate, allantoin and succinate and lower levels of glycine and tyrosine relative to controls in urine and faecal samples, respectively (Supplementary Table 3).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The same clusters are observed when correlating with individual taxa, in support of previously observed links between SCFAs and numerous metabolic benefits and a lean phenotype.[33][34][35]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Diversity measures are statistically significant between low BMI and athletes (p < 0.049), with statistical significance between all groups (Kruskal Wallis p < 0.05).”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, PAG positively correlates with the genus Erysipelotrichaceae Incertae Sedis, which we have previously noted to be present in relatively higher proportions in the athlete group compared to both control groups.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Heat map of bacterial taxa (family, genus, and species level) that correlate with faecal short-chain fatty acid levels using Spearman's correlation.”
- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
“All taxa shown had a correlation p-value < 0.01.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within the SCFAs, two distinct clusters were observed; acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid correlate with dietary contributors (fibre and protein), while isobutyric acid, isovaleric acid and valeric acid correlate with microbial diversity.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“associated with enhanced muscle turnover (fitness) and overall health when compared to control groups.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Elevated TMAO has been observed in patients with cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis, highlighting a potential downside to increased protein intake.[15-17,22, 37]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the contrary, the athlete microbiome presents a functional capacity that is primed for tissue repair and to harness energy from the diet with increased capacity for carbohydrate, cell structure and nucleotide biosynthesis, reflecting the significant energy demands and high cell-turnover evident in elite sport.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants made no report of gastrointestinal (GI) distress or alterations of GI transit time throughout the course of the initial study.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > RESULTS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Approval for this study was granted by the Cork Clinical Research Ethics Committee.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Study population
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“3-hydroxy-isovaleric acid (potentially from egg consumption) which has been demonstrated to have efficacy for inhibiting muscle wasting when used in conjunction of physical exercise.[40]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Stratton, 2006, Lymphocyte propionyl-CoA carboxylase and its activation by biotin are sensitive indicators of marginal biotin deficiency in humans, Am J Clin Nutr source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“All presented p values were corrected for multiple comparisons using the Benjamini-Hochberg False Discovery Rate (pFDR) method.[47]”
- Also stated in: § Metabolic profiling · plain
“P-values were adjusted for multiple testing using the Benjamini-Hochberg False Discovery Rate (pFDR) method.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Metagenomic statistical and bioinformatic analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] source
plainn = 86- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Metabolic profiling · plain
In the paper
“It is notable that PAG-a microbial conversion product of phenylalanine-has been associated with a lean phenotype, and is increased in the athletes.[42]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The compound is also commonly used as a supplement by athletes to increase exercise-induced gains in muscle size, muscle strength, and lean body mass, reduce exercise-induced muscle damage, and speed recovery from highintensity exercise.[41]”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The control participants are representative of a more sedentary lifestyle than the athletes.
“The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These findings support the role of A muciniphila in metabolic regulation.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“For example, levels of SCFAs were significantly higher in athletes compared with controls,”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“Among the individual species that differed between athletes and controls, A muciniphila was found to be enriched by 16s rRNA and metagenomic sequencing analyses, as well as in the metabolic pathway analysis.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“The athletes were found to have a more diverse gut microbiome than the controls.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [110]
In the citing paper
“A high-fiber diet and exercise are associated with increased diversity of the gut microbiota and enrichment of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), both of which have been implicated in improved survival following treatment with ICB”
From Hallmarks of response, resistance, and toxicity to immune checkpoint blockade (2021) · cites this paper as Barton et al., 2018
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > Distinct differences between host and microbial metabolites in athletes and controls
“Levels of glutamine, 7methylxanthine, imidazoleacetic acid, isoquinoline / quinolone were lower in athletes' urinary samples relative to controls.”
§ The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level > DISCUSSION
“Metabolites derived from vitamins and recovery supplements common in professional sports, including glutamine, lysine, 4-pyridoxic acid, and nicotinamide, are also raised in the athlete group.”
Citations
Cites
Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x · Cited by 109,482
An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest
Turnbaugh, P. J., Ley, R. E., Mahowald, M. A., Magrini, V., Mardis, E. R., & Gordon, J. I. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05414 · Cited by 12,444
From Dietary Fiber to Host Physiology: Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Key Bacterial Metabolites
Koh, A., De Vadder, F., Kovatcheva-Datchary, P., & Bäckhed, F. (2016) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.05.041 · Cited by 7,070
Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease
Wang, Z., Klipfell, E., Bennett, B. J., Koeth, R., Levison, B. S., DuGar, B., Feldstein, A. E., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Chung, Y.-M., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09922 · Cited by 5,597
Sumner, L. W., Amberg, A., Barrett, D., Beale, M. H., Beger, R., Daykin, C. A., Fan, T. W.-M., Fiehn, O., Goodacre, R., Griffin, J. L., et al. (2007) · Metabolomics · doi:10.1007/s11306-007-0082-2 · Cited by 5,368
den Besten, G., van Eunen, K., Groen, A. K., Venema, K., Reijngoud, D.-J., & Bakker, B. M. (2013) · Journal of Lipid Research · doi:10.1194/jlr.r036012 · Cited by 5,048
Intestinal microbiota metabolism of l-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis
Koeth, R. A., Wang, Z., Levison, B. S., Buffa, J. A., Org, E., Sheehy, B. T., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Wu, Y., Li, L., et al. (2013) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.3145 · Cited by 4,386
Gut Microbiota from Twins Discordant for Obesity Modulate Metabolism in Mice
Ridaura, V. K., Faith, J. J., Rey, F. E., Cheng, J., Duncan, A. E., Kau, A. L., Griffin, N. W., Lombard, V., Henrissat, B., Bain, J. R., et al. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1241214 · Cited by 3,788
Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk
Tang, W. H. W., Wang, Z., Levison, B. S., Koeth, R. A., Britt, E. B., Fu, X., Wu, Y., & Hazen, S. L. (2013) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1109400 · Cited by 3,400
Caspi, R., Billington, R., Ferrer, L., Foerster, H., Fulcher, C. A., Keseler, I. M., Kothari, A., Krummenacker, M., Latendresse, M., Mueller, L. A., et al. (2016) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkv1164 · Cited by 3,395
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hallmarks of response, resistance, and toxicity to immune checkpoint blockade
Morad, G., Helmink, B. A., Sharma, P., & Wargo, J. A. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.09.020 · Cited by 1,648
The compelling link between physical activity and the body's defense system
Nieman, D. C., & Wentz, L. M. (2019) · Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.009 · Cited by 1,340
“Although research in this area is emerging, recent studies indicate that exercise and physical fitness diversifies the gut microbiota, enhancing the number of benign microbial communities.(142,143) The underlying mechanisms are still being explored, with no clear consensus, in part owing to confounding from diet, exer…”
BackgroundThe Human Gut Microbiome: From Association to Modulation
Schmidt, T. S. B., Raes, J., & Bork, P. (2018) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.02.044 · Cited by 845
“, 2017), and physical exercise (Barton et al., 2017; Clarke et al., 2014; Petersen et al., 2017) have been linked to microbiome composition but were not among the top-ranking covariates in recent population studies.”
Exercise alters gut microbiota composition and function in lean and obese humans
ALLEN, J. M., MAILING, L. J., NIEMIRO, G. M., MOORE, R., COOK, M. D., WHITE, B. A., HOLSCHER, H. D., & WOODS, J. A. (2018) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001495 · Cited by 820
“Considering the findings presented here and previous cross-sectional studies (12,13), we postulate that an exercise-induced increase towards a greater SCFAproducing capacity may represent a beneficial adaptation, ultimately contributing to enhanced replenishment of expended calories and improvements in body compositio…”
BackgroundInfluence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer
Song, M., Chan, A. T., & Sun, J. (2020) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2019.06.048 · Cited by 752
Metadata
- Authors
- Barton, W., Penney, N. C., Cronin, O., Garcia-Perez, I., Molloy, M. G., Holmes, E., Shanahan, F., Cotter, P. D., & O'Sullivan, O.
- Affiliations
- Teagasc - The Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority (IE)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- National University of Ireland (IE)
- Section of Biomolecular Medicine, Division of Computational Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland
- Corresponding author
- Shanahan, Fergus
- ORCID
- Venue
- Gut
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2017-03-30
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 625-633
- ISSN
- 0017-5749 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-3288
- OpenAlex
- W2597526148
- Cited by
- 647
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 92 · 2021: 89 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 12
- FWCI
- 17.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Gut (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Cork Open Research Archive (University College Cork, Ireland) (submittedVersion)
- Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Science Foundation Ireland (11/PI/1137, 13/SIRG/2160, SFI/12/RC/2273)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- gut microbiota, professional athletes, rugby union players, physical activity, sedentary lifestyle, microbial metabolic functions, short-chain fatty acids, fecal metabolites, amino acid biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, antibiotic biosynthesis, serum creatine kinase, functional metagenomics
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Feces, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Athletes
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