Exercise and associated dietary extremes impact on gut microbial diversity
Open accessAbstract
Objective: The commensal microbiota, host immunity and metabolism participate in a signalling network, with diet influencing each component of this triad. In addition to diet, many elements of a modern lifestyle influence the gut microbiota but the degree to which exercise affects this population is unclear. Therefore, we explored exercise and diet for their impact on the gut microbiota. Design: Since extremes of exercise often accompany extremes of diet, we addressed the issue by studying professional athletes from an international rugby union squad. Two groups were included to control for physical size, age and gender. Compositional analysis of the microbiota was explored by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Each participant completed a detailed food frequency questionnaire. Results: As expected, athletes and controls differed significantly with respect to plasma creatine kinase (a marker of extreme exercise), and inflammatory and metabolic markers. More importantly, athletes had a higher diversity of gut micro-organisms, representing 22 distinct phyla, which in turn positively correlated with protein consumption and creatine kinase. Conclusions: The results provide evidence for a beneficial impact of exercise on gut microbiota diversity but also indicate that the relationship is complex and is related to accompanying dietary extremes.
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Professional rugby players diverge from BMI-matched non-athletes in several bacterial phyla.
“Cross-sectional human studies have reported that professional rugby players diverge from body mass index (BMI)-matched non-athletes in several bacterial phyla (Clarke et al., 2014), and that normal weight active women differ from sedentary women in several taxa (Bressa et al., 2017).”
From Six-Week Endurance Exercise Alters Gut Metagenome That Is not Reflected in Systemic Metabolism in Over-weight Women (2018) · cites this paper as Clarke et al., 2014
Athletes harbored more Akkermansia than sedentary controls.
“First, athletes harbored more Akkermansia than sedentary controls (Clarke et al., 2014)”
From Six-Week Endurance Exercise Alters Gut Metagenome That Is not Reflected in Systemic Metabolism in Over-weight Women (2018) · cites this paper as Clarke et al., 2014
Compositional and functional differences in the gut microbiota exist between professional athletes and their BMI-matched sedentary counterparts.
“It seems that both compositional and functional differencies in the gut microbiota exist between professional athletes and their BMI-matched sedentary counterparts (Clarke et al., 2014)”
From Six-Week Endurance Exercise Alters Gut Metagenome That Is not Reflected in Systemic Metabolism in Over-weight Women (2018) · cites this paper as Clarke et al., 2014
In both studies, the active and sedentary groups differed from each other in dietary intakes, especially fiber intake.
“However, it should be noted that in both studies the active and sedentary group differed from each other in dietary intakes, especially fiber intake.”
From Six-Week Endurance Exercise Alters Gut Metagenome That Is not Reflected in Systemic Metabolism in Over-weight Women (2018) · cites this paper as Clarke et al., 2014
Akkermansia muciniphila might provide a link between obesity and colorectal cancer.
“Akkermansia muciniphila might also provide a link between obesity and CRC,96”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
Elite professional rugby players had a more diverse gut microbiome than controls.
“The athletes were found to have a more diverse gut microbiome than the controls.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
Levels of short-chain fatty acids were significantly higher in athletes compared with controls.
“For example, levels of SCFAs were significantly higher in athletes compared with controls,”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
These findings support a role for Akkermansia muciniphila in metabolic regulation.
“These findings support the role of A muciniphila in metabolic regulation.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
Among species differing between athletes and controls, Akkermansia muciniphila was enriched by 16S rRNA and metagenomic sequencing and metabolic pathway analysis.
“Among the individual species that differed between athletes and controls, A muciniphila was found to be enriched by 16s rRNA and metagenomic sequencing analyses, as well as in the metabolic pathway analysis.”
From Influence of the Gut Microbiome, Diet, and Environment on Risk of Colorectal Cancer (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
In a previous study, the authors found taxonomic differences in gut microbiota between elite rugby players and age-matched high- and low-BMI controls.
“Previously, using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, we demonstrated taxonomic differences in gut microbiota between an elite athlete cohort of international-level rugby players and a group of age-matched high (>28 kg/m 2 ) and low (<25 kg/m 2 ) BMI controls.[26]”
From The microbiome of professional athletes differs from that of more sedentary subjects in composition and particularly at the functional metabolic level (2018) · cites this paper as [26]
Athletes have varying gut microbiota compositions that appear to reflect the activity level of the host in comparison to sedentary people, with the differences linked primarily to the volume of exercise and amount of protein consumption.
“Athletes have varying gut microbiota compositions that appear to reflect the activity level of the host in comparison to sedentary people, with the differences linked primarily to the volume of exercise and amount of protein consumption.”
From International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Probiotics (2019) · cites this paper as [16]
Professional male rugby players had a more diverse gut microbiota than healthy, non-athlete subjects matched for body mass index, age, and gender.
“Clarke et al. [19] reported the gut microbiota of professional male rugby players was more diverse than healthy, non-athlete subjects matched for body mass index (BMI), age, and gender.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Current research reports a higher abundance of health-promoting bacterial species and increased microbial diversity in athletes.
“Current research reports a higher abundance of health-promoting bacterial species and increased microbial diversity in athletes [13, 18, 19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
The alpha diversity of elite athletes' microbiota was higher than that of both control groups.
“Importantly, the alpha diversity of the elite athlete’s microbiota was higher than that of both control groups.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Protein consumption was correlated positively with microbial diversity across all groups.
“Moreover, protein consumption was correlated positively (R = 0.24–0.43) with microbial diversity across all groups, indicating that greater protein intake was linked to higher levels of microbial diversity.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Athletes and those in the low BMI control group had higher proportions of the genus Akkermansia than the high BMI control group.
“Further, the athletes and those in the low BMI control group had higher proportions of the genus Akkermansia than the high BMI control group.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Results from Clarke et al. and Petersen et al. suggest A. muciniphilia may be more present in athletes than non-athletes.
“While evidence is currently limited, results from Clarke et al. [19] and Petersen et al. [18] suggest A. muciniphilia may be more present in athletes than non-athletes.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
In professional rugby players, there was a higher diversity of gut microbiota compared with controls.
“In professional rugby players, who had a unique dietary pattern (higher energy intake and quantities of protein, fat, carbohydrates, sugar and saturated fat per day, with protein accounting for considerably more of the total energy) and a high level of physical activity, there was a higher diversity of gut microbiota compared with controls [19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
It was unclear if the higher diversity in rugby players was due to exercise, a high-protein diet, a combination of these two factors, or other factors.
“However, it was unclear if this effect was due to exercise, a high-protein diet, a combination of these two factors, or other factors [19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
In rugby athletes with high energy consumption (median intake 4449 kcal/day), gut microbial diversity was significantly greater than in age- and BMI-matched sedentary controls (median intake 2801 kcal/day).
“In rugby athletes with high energy consumption (median intake of 4449 kcals per day), gut microbial diversity was significantly greater compared to age and BMI matched sedentary controls (median intake of 2801 kcal per day) [19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
No changes in compositional microbiota diversity were detected after the ten-week protein supplementation intervention, in contrast to Clarke et al., which may relate to the low percentage of protein intake.
“In contrast to Clarke et al. [19], no changes in compositional microbiota diversity were detected after the ten-week intervention, which may relate to the low percentage of protein intake.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
In professional rugby players, distinct compositional and functional microbial characteristics are evident in the gut, including increased alpha diversity, enhanced microbial production of SCFAs, and greater metabolic capacity.
“In professional rugby players, distinct compositional and functional microbial characteristics, including increased alpha diversity, enhanced microbial production of SCFAs, and greater metabolic capacity are evident in the gut [13, 19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
In many athletic disciplines and recreational exercise, protein supplementation (e.g., whey protein) provides a sizeable proportion of athletes' daily protein intake.
“In many athletic disciplines, as well as recreational exercise, protein supplementation (e.g., whey protein) provides a sizeable proportion of athletes’ daily protein intake [19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
The athletes in Clarke et al. met all recommended dietary intake requirements, while the athletes in Jang et al. had insufficient carbohydrate and dietary fiber intake compared to standard macronutrient distribution ranges.
“the study by Clarke and colleagues [19] met all of the recommended dietary intake requirements, while the athletes in the investigation by Jang et al. [11] had insufficient carbohydrate and dietary fiber intake (compared to standard macronutrient distribution ranges).”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
The difference between these two studies may be due to differences in analyses: Clarke et al. only assessed the V4 region, while the present study used the V3 and V4 region.
“The difference between these two studies may also be due to differences in analyses, as Clarke et al. [19] only assessed the V4 region of the gene, while the present study used the V3 and V4 region (see Table 4).”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
These microbial features positively correlate with athletes' levels of physical activity and the quantity of dietary protein consumed.
“These microbial features not only positively correlate with the athletes’ levels of physical activity, but also the quantity of dietary protein consumed.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
The inconsistency between these results and Clarke et al. may relate to the nutritional status of the athletes.
“The inconsistency of these results compared to Clarke et al. [19] may relate to the nutritional status of the athletes.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Microbiota diversity indices correlated positively with protein intake and serum creatine kinase, indicating that diet and exercise are both drivers of biodiversity in the gut.
“Clarke et al. [19] reported microbiota diversity indices correlated positively with protein intake and serum creatine kinase indicating that diet and exercise are both drivers of biodiversity in the gut.”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Blood urea levels (a by-product of diets rich in protein) are positively correlated with microbiota diversity.
“The protein and microbiota diversity relationship is further supported by a positive correlation between blood urea levels (a by-product of diets rich in protein) and microbiota diversity [19].”
From The athletic gut microbiota (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
Comparison of microbial diversity among elite rugby players and healthy normal weight and overweight age-matched controls elicited a hierarchical pattern (athletes > healthy > overweight), suggesting an association between microbial diversity, body composition, and physical function.
“Comparison of microbial diversity among these athletes and both healthy normal weight (BMI ≤ 25) and overweight (BMI ≥ 28) age-matched controls elicited a hierarchical pattern (athletes > healthy > overweight), suggesting an association between microbial diversity, body composition, and physical function.”
From Gut Microbiota Contribute to Age-Related Changes in Skeletal Muscle Size, Composition, and Function: Biological Basis for a Gut-Muscle Axis (2018) · cites this paper as [101]
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- Authors
- Clarke, S. F., Murphy, E. F., O'Sullivan, O., Lucey, A. J., Humphreys, M., Hogan, A., Hayes, P., O'Reilly, M., Jeffery, I. B., Wood-Martin, R., Kerins, D. M., Quigley, E., Ross, R. P., O'Toole, P. W., Molloy, M. G., Falvey, E., Shanahan, F., & Cotter, P. D.
- Affiliations
- Teagasc - The Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority (IE)
- University College Cork (IE)
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Cork, Ireland
- Cork University Hospital (IE)
- Irish Rugby Football Union (IE)
- Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- National University of Ireland (IE)
- Corresponding author
- Shanahan, Fergus
- ORCID
- Venue
- Gut
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2014-06-09
- Volume
- 63
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1913-1920
- ISSN
- 0017-5749 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-3288
- OpenAlex
- W2096160104
- Cited by
- 1,439
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 105 · 2025: 143 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 183 · 2021: 159 · 2020: 132 · 2019: 118 · 2018: 99 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 15
- FWCI
- 26.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Gut (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Science Foundation Ireland (12/RC/2273, 12/RC/)
- Teagasc
- Irish Centre for High-End Computing
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- physical activity, gut microbiota, microbial diversity, professional athletes, rugby union, protein intake, creatine kinase, inflammation, host-microbe interactions, diet and microbiome
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Creatine Kinase, Diet, Dietary Proteins, Food Analysis, Humans, Immunity, Inflammation, Male, Sports, Biomarkers, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Gastrointestinal Tract, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Microbiota
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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