Cited by 532Bone health and osteoporosis researchHIV-related health complications and treatmentsMenopause: Health Impacts and Treatments

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The role of DXA bone density scans in the diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis

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Blake, Glen M, Fogelman, Ignac·2007·Postgraduate Medical Journal

DOI 10.1136/pgmj.2007.057505PMC PMC2600106

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Abstract

Dual energy x ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans to measure bone mineral density (BMD) at the spine and hip have an important role in the evaluation of individuals at risk of osteoporosis, and in helping clinicians advise patients about the appropriate use of antifracture treatment. Compared with alternative bone densitometry techniques, hip and spine DXA examinations have a number of advantages that include a consensus that BMD results can be interpreted using the World Health Organization T-score definition of osteoporosis, a proven ability to predict fracture risk, proven effectiveness at targeting antifracture therapies, and the ability to monitor response to treatment. This review discusses the evidence for these and other clinical aspects of DXA scanning, including its role in the new WHO algorithm for treating patients on the basis of their individual fracture risk.

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A cross-sectional analysis of the association between sleep duration and osteoporosis risk in adults using 2005–2010 NHANES
Lee, C.-L., Tzeng, H.-E., Liu, W.-J., & Tsai, C. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88739-x · Cited by 39
“0056 Wrist 1148 (10) 94 (16) 387 (11) 571 (9) 96 (12) 0.”
Wrist bone mineral density utility in diagnosing hip osteoporosis in postmenopausal women
Eftekharsadat, B., Ghavami, M., Toopchizadeh, V., & Akbari, M. G. (2016) · Therapeutic Advances in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1177/2042018816658164 · Cited by 38
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry positioning protocols in assessing body composition: A systematic review of the literature
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Does Physical Exercise Always Improve Bone Quality in Rats?
Portier, H., Benaîtreau, D., & Pallu, S. (2020) · Life · doi:10.3390/life10100217 · Cited by 38
“Volumetric BMD differs from the areal (2-dimensional) BMD that is obtained using DXA [49–52].”
MethodInfluential
Trends in osteoporosis and mean bone density among type 2 diabetes patients in the US from 2005 to 2014
Xu, Y., & Wu, Q. F. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-83263-4 · Cited by 38
Osteoporosis Pre-Screening Using Ensemble Machine Learning in Postmenopausal Korean Women
Kwon, Y., Lee, J., Park, J. H., Kim, Y. M., Kim, S. H., Won, Y. J., & Kim, H.-Y. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10061107 · Cited by 41
“BMDs of the lumbar spine and femur are usually measured, but those of the wrist, finger, or heel may be substituted [21].”
Background
Implications of combined ovariectomy and glucocorticoid (dexamethasone) treatment on mineral, microarchitectural, biomechanical and matrix properties of rat bone
Govindarajan, P., Khassawna, T. E., Kampschulte, M., Böcker, W., Hürter, B., Dürselen, L., Faulenbach, M., & Heiß, C. (2013) · International Journal of Experimental Pathology · doi:10.1111/iep.12038 · Cited by 38
“Z-scores were calculated with the formula, Z-score = [Measured BMD – Age-matched BMD]/Age-matched population SD (Glen and Ignac 2007).”
Method
Risk factors predicting subsequent falls and osteoporotic fractures at 4 years after distal radius fracture—a prospective cohort study
Dewan, N., MacDermid, J. C., Grewal, R. S., & BEATTIE, K. A. (2018) · Archives of Osteoporosis · doi:10.1007/s11657-018-0445-5 · Cited by 36
Association of adiposity indices with bone density and bone turnover in the Chinese population
Wang, J., Yan, D., Hou, X., Chen, P., Sun, Q., Bao, Y., Hu, C., Zhang, Z., & Jia, W. (2017) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-017-4081-5 · Cited by 34
MRI-based assessment of proximal femur strength compared to mechanical testing
Rajapakse, C. S., Farid, A. R., Kargilis, D., Jones, B. C., Lee, J., Johncola, A., Batzdorf, A. S., Shetye, S. S., Hast, M. W., & Chang, G. A. (2020) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2020.115227 · Cited by 34
“DXA scanners are fairly ubiquitous and provide precise measurements of bone density in short scan times [9].”
Background
Impact of hormone therapy on the bone density of women with premature ovarian insufficiency: A systematic review
Costa, G. P. O., Filho, E. S. F., Simões, R. S., Soares, J. M., Baracat, E. C., & Maciel, G. A. R. (2022) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2022.09.011 · Cited by 34
DXA in Adults and Children
Blake, G. M., Adams, J. E., & Bishop, N. J. (2013) · Primer on the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of mineral metabolism · doi:10.1002/9781118453926.ch30 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
Effect of trabecular architectures on the mechanical response in osteoporotic and healthy human bone
Bregoli, C., Biffi, C. A., Tuissi, A., & Buccino, F. (2024) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/s11517-024-03134-8 · Cited by 33
“Currently, DXA scans, already implemented in clinics, provide information on bone density and WHO provides well-established indexes for the definition of osteoporosis (i.e. T-score, z-score) [9, 10].”
BackgroundMethod
Quantitative Radionuclide Studies of Bone
Blake, G. M., Frost, M. L., & Fogelman, I. (2009) · Journal of Nuclear Medicine · doi:10.2967/jnumed.109.063263 · Cited by 33
“Bone densitometry using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry is another method for monitoring changes in bone remodeling (14,15).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Association Between Bone Mineral Density and Autoantibodies in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis
Amkreutz, J. A. M. P., de Moel, E. C., Theander, L., Willim, M., Heimans, L., Nilsson, J., Karlsson, M. K., Huizinga, T. W. J., Åkesson, K., Jacobsson, L., et al. (2020) · Arthritis & Rheumatology · doi:10.1002/art.41623 · Cited by 33
Intra and Interobserver Reliability and Agreement of Semiquantitative Vertebral Fracture Assessment on Chest Computed Tomography
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“Subclinical vertebral fractures may precede overt osteoporosis and may predict future fractures, independently of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, which is currently the standard modality used to diagnose osteoporosis but has only modest predictive value for future fractures [5].”
Background
Deep Learning-Based Hip X-ray Image Analysis for Predicting Osteoporosis
Feng, S.-W., Lin, S., Chiang, Y.-H., Lu, M.-H., & Chao, Y.-H. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14010133 · Cited by 30
Evaluation of circulating miRNA-208a-3p, miRNA-155–5p and miRNA-637 as potential non-invasive biomarkers and the possible mechanistic insights into pre- and postmenopausal osteoporotic females
Ismail, S. M., El-Boghdady, N. A., Hamoud, H. S., & Shabayek, M. I. (2020) · Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics · doi:10.1016/j.abb.2020.108331 · Cited by 30
Risk Behavior Not Associated with Self-Perception of PrEP Candidacy: Implications for Designing PrEP Services
Xie, L., Wu, Y., Meng, S., Hou, J., Fu, R., Zheng, H., He, N., Wang, M., & Meyers, K. A. (2019) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-019-02587-5 · Cited by 29
Low Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Therapy (LIPUS): A review of evidence and potential applications in diabetics
Berber, R., Aziz, S., Simkins, J., Lin, S. S., & Mangwani, J. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma · doi:10.1016/j.jcot.2020.03.009 · Cited by 29
Surgical Treatment Options in Patients With Impaired Bone Quality
Johanson, N. A., Litrenta, J. M., Zampini, J. M., Kleinbart, F. A., & Goldman, H. M. (2011) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1007/s11999-011-1838-6 · Cited by 29
“DXA-determined BMD has been used to define osteoporosis (through the use of T-scores) [142], predicts fracture risk [20, 92], and can monitor response to therapeutic interventions [11, 64].”
Patient-Specific Phantomless Estimation of Bone Mineral Density and Its Effects on Finite Element Analysis Results: A Feasibility Study
Lee, Y. H., Kim, J. J., & Jang, I. G. (2019) · Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine · doi:10.1155/2019/4102410 · Cited by 29
Postmenopausal women with osteopenia and a healed wrist fracture have reduced physical function and quality of life compared to a matched, healthy control group with no fracture
Hakestad, K. A., Nordsletten, L., Torstveit, M. K., & Risberg, M. A. (2014) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/1472-6874-14-92 · Cited by 28
“The method is exact and reliable [1,27], and the scanned areas were hip, femur neck and trochanter, lumbar spine and total body.”
Method
Magnetic Susceptibility and Fat Content in the Lumbar Spine of Postmenopausal Women With Varying Bone Mineral Density
Guo, Y., Chen, Y., Zhang, X., Mei, Y., Yi, P., Wang, Y., Feng, Q., Tegola, L. L., Guglielmi, G., Zhang, X., et al. (2018) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.26279 · Cited by 28
“Bone mineral density (BMD) measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the current standard quantitative indicator of osteoporosis and fracture risk in clinical practice.(6) However, the 2D DXA measurement of BMD is complicated by bone size and surrounding tissues.”
Machine Learning for Opportunistic Screening for Osteoporosis from CT Scans of the Wrist and Forearm
Sebro, R., & la Garza‐Ramos, C. D. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics12030691 · Cited by 28
“The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Society for Clinical Densitometry (ISCD) have guidelines for the classification of patients aged 50 years or greater with low BMD as osteoporotic or osteopenic based on DEXA BMD T-scores.”
BackgroundInfluential
Cross-Calibration of GE Healthcare Lunar Prodigy and iDXA Dual-Energy X-Ray Densitometers for Bone Mineral Measurements
Saarelainen, J., Hakulinen, M. A., Rikkonen, T., Kröger, H., Tuppurainen, M., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H. T., Honkanen, R., Hujo, M., & Jurvelin, J. S. (2016) · Journal of Osteoporosis · doi:10.1155/2016/1424582 · Cited by 27
“(coefficients of variation, CV% = (SD/mean) × 100%) of the instruments [14].”
Influence of Adolescents' Physical Activity on Bone Mineral Acquisition: A Systematic Review Article.
Zulfarina, M. S., Ahmad, M. S., Aqilah-S.N, Z.-S., Mokhtar, S.-A., Nazrun, S. A., & Naina-Mohamed, I. (2016) · PubMed Central · Cited by 26
Relationship between Body Mass Index and T-Scores of Bone Mineral Density in the Hip and Spine Regions among Older Adults with Diabetes: A Retrospective Review
Hariri, A. F., Almatrafi, M. N., Zamka, A. B., Babaker, A. S., Fallatah, T. M., Althouwaibi, O. H., & Hamdi, A. (2019) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2019/9827403 · Cited by 29
Severity of reduced bone mineral density and risk of fractures in long‐term survivors of childhood leukemia and lymphoma undergoing guideline‐recommended surveillance for bone health
Bloomhardt, H. M., Sint, K., Ross, W. L., Rotatori, J. L., Ness, K. D., Robinson, C., Carpenter, T. O., Chow, E. J., & Kadan‐Lottick, N. S. (2019) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/cncr.32512 · Cited by 26
“208 Cancer January 1, 2020 on multiple epidemiological studies.(51) Because of the retrospective nature of our study, DXA surveillance may have occurred before or after a fracture, and we could not conclude causality between low BMD and fracture.”
Background
Patients with abnormal microarchitecture have an increased risk of early complications after spinal fusion surgery
Kim, H. J., Dash, A. S., Cunningham, M. E., Schwab, F. J., Dowdell, J. E., Harrison, J., Zaworski, C., Krez, A. N., Lafage, V., Agarwal, S., et al. (2020) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2020.115731 · Cited by 26
Large-scale osteocyte lacunar morphological analysis of transiliac bone in normal and osteoporotic premenopausal women
Goff, E., Cohen, A., Shane, E. J., Recker, R. R., Kuhn, G. A., & Müller, R. (2022) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2022.116424 · Cited by 27
Recursive hierarchic segmentation analysis of bone mineral density changes on digital panoramic images
Lurie, A. G., Tosoni, G. M., Tsimikas, J., & Walker, F. (2012) · Oral Surgery Oral Medicine Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.oooo.2011.10.002 · Cited by 26
Discordance between Hip and Spine Bone Mineral Density: A Point of Care
Yoon, B., & Kim, D. (2021) · Journal of Bone Metabolism · doi:10.11005/jbm.2021.28.4.249 · Cited by 26
“[1] DXA is usually measured at the central bone (hip and spine) and the BMD is determined by the lowest score at 1 of these 2 sites.[1,2] Discordance is defined as a discrepancy in the BMD measurements at the 2 sites, which can pose clinicians with the predicament on how to incorporate BMD measurement when deciding on…”
BackgroundMethod
Automated osteoporosis classification and T -score prediction using hip radiographs via deep learning algorithm
Chen, Y., Chan, W. P., Zhang, H., Tsai, Z.-R., Peng, H.-C., Huang, S.-W., Jang, Y.-C., & Kuo, Y. (2024) · Therapeutic Advances in Musculoskeletal Disease · doi:10.1177/1759720x241237872 · Cited by 25
Imaging Techniques for the Assessment of the Bone Osteoporosis-Induced Variations with Particular Focus on Micro-CT Potential
Molino, G., Montalbano, G., Pontremoli, C., Fiorilli, S., & Vitale‐Brovarone, C. (2020) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app10248939 · Cited by 25
“In 1994, the WHO also recognised the value of the areal BMD measured by DXA as a reliable parameter for the assessment of bone fracture risk [42].”
Background
Characteristics of Long-Term Femoral Neck Bone Loss in Postmenopausal Women: A 25-Year Follow-Up
Moilanen, A., Kopra, J., Kröger, H., Sund, R., Rikkonen, T., & Sirola, J. P. (2020) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.4444 · Cited by 25
“Hologic anthropometric lumbar spine phantom, European Spine Phantom (ESP), and GE Healthcare Lunar aluminum spine phantom((18,19)) were scanned 10 times during a period of 1 week to calculate the short-term precision error (coefficients of variation, CV% = (standard deviation [SD]/mean) 100%) of the instruments.((20))…”
Method
Systematic Development and Optimization of Teriparatide-Loaded Nanoliposomes Employing Quality by Design Approach for Osteoporosis
Rana, D., Salave, S., Jain, S., Shah, R. P., & Benival, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovation · doi:10.1007/s12247-022-09663-9 · Cited by 25
“The poor bone strength manifests towards increased proneness of fractures of the spine, hip, forearm, and other skeletal settings ultimately leading to morbidity and mortality [2].”
Background
Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry of bone—Impact of sample preparation and measurement conditions
Henß, A., Hild, A., Rohnke, M., Wenisch, S., & Janek, J. (2015) · Biointerphases · doi:10.1116/1.4928211 · Cited by 25
Bone volume–to–total volume ratio measured in trabecular bone by single‐sided NMR devices
Brizi, L., Barbieri, M., Baruffaldi, F., Bortolotti, V., Fersini, C., Liu, H., d’Eurydice, M. N., Obruchkov, S. I., Zong, F., Galvosas, P., et al. (2017) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.26697 · Cited by 25
“It uses ionizing radiations and provides a measure of the areal bone mineral density (BMD), but does not provide any information about the microstructure of the bone (3,4), while the strength of trabecular bone to resist fractures depends not only on BMD, but also on the architecture of the trabecular structure.”
Background
Recovery patterns over 4 years after distal radius fracture: Descriptive changes in fracture-specific pain/disability, fall risk factors, bone mineral density, and general health status
Dewan, N., MacDermid, J. C., Grewal, R. S., & BEATTIE, K. A. (2017) · Journal of Hand Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.jht.2017.06.009 · Cited by 25
The role of body composition assessment in obesity and eating disorders
Dalili, D., Bazzocchi, A., Dalili, D. E., Guglielmi, G., & Isaac, A. (2020) · European Journal of Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2020.109227 · Cited by 28
Bone mineral density in healthy adult Indian population: the Chandigarh Urban Bone Epidemiological Study (CUBES)
Aggarwal, A., Pal, R., Bhadada, S. K., Ram, S., Garg, A., Bhansali, A. K., Singh, P., Thakur, J. S., Singh, T., Sachdeva, N. K., et al. (2021) · Archives of Osteoporosis · doi:10.1007/s11657-020-00868-4 · Cited by 25
A systematic review on the correlation between skeletal and jawbone mineral density in osteoporotic subjects
Calciolari, E., Donos, N., Park, J., Petrie, A., & Mardas, N. (2015) · Clinical Oral Implants Research · doi:10.1111/clr.12597 · Cited by 24
“…for measuring BMD and diagnosing osteoporosis for its reproducibility, short scan times, large normative data and very low doses of radiation (Blake and Fogelman 2007), although other techniques such as quantitative ultrasound (QUS), quantitative computed tomography (QCT), peripheral DXA,…”
Osteoporosis detection in postmenopausal women using axial transmission multi-frequency bone ultrasonometer: Clinical findings
Egorov, V., Tatarinov, A. M., Sarvazyan, N., Wood, R., Magidenko, L., Amin, S., Khosla, S., Ruh, R., Ruh, J., & Sarvazyan, A. P. (2013) · Ultrasonics · doi:10.1016/j.ultras.2013.08.017 · Cited by 24
“5 or lower is considered the current ‘‘gold standard’’ in osteoporosis assessment [1,2].”
Quantification of calcium content in bone by using ToF-SIMS–a first approach
Henß, A., Rohnke, M., Knaack, S., Kleine‐Boymann, M., Leichtweiß, T., Schmitz, P., Khassawna, T. E., Gelinsky, M., Heiß, C., & Janek, J. (2013) · Biointerphases · doi:10.1186/1559-4106-8-31 · Cited by 24
“Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and quantitative computed tomography (Q-CT) are widely used for the clinical diagnosis of osteoporosis [1,2].”
Method
Regional differences in hip bone mineral density levels in Norway: the NOREPOS study
Omsland, T. K., Gjesdal, C. G., Emaus, N., Tell, G. S., & Meyer, H. E. (2008) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-008-0699-7 · Cited by 24
“Low bone mineral density (BMD) is widely recognized as a major risk factor for fractures [15].”
Background
Random forest classifiers aid in the detection of incidental osteoblastic osseous metastases in DEXA studies
Mehta, S. D., & Sebro, R. (2019) · International Journal of Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11548-019-01933-1 · Cited by 23

Authors: Blake, G. M., & Fogelman, I.
Affiliations: King's College London (GB)
Corresponding author: Blake, Glen M
ORCID: Blake, Glen M
Venue: Postgraduate Medical Journal
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2007-08-01
Volume: 83
Issue: 982
Pages: 509-517
ISSN: 0032-5473 (ISSN-L)
1469-0756
DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.2007.057505
PMC: PMC2600106
OpenAlex: W2000878199
Cited by: 532
References: 74
Citations by year: 2026: 31 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 1.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: academic.oup.com/pages/standard-publication-reuse-rights (vor)
Locations: Postgraduate Medical Journal (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Bone health and osteoporosis research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › HIV-related health complications and treatments
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Menopause: Health Impacts and Treatments
Keywords: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, bone mineral density, osteoporosis diagnosis, fracture risk prediction, treatment response monitoring
MeSH terms: Humans, Osteoporosis, Risk Factors, Absorptiometry, Photon, Bone Density, Risk Assessment, Fractures, Bone

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The role of DXA bone density scans in the diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis

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