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Assessing Intrauterine Influences on Offspring Health Outcomes: Can Epidemiological Studies Yield Robust Findings?
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Abstract: The influence of factors acting during the intrauterine period on health outcomes of offspring is of considerable research and public health interest. There are, however, methodological challenges in establishing robust causal links, because exposures often act many decades before outcomes of interest, may act before it is evident that women are pregnant and would enter pregnancy birth cohorts, and may also be strongly related to other factors, generating considerable degrees of potential confounding. The degree of confounding can sometimes be estimated by comparing the association between exposures experienced by the mother during pregnancy and outcomes among the offspring with the association of exposures experienced by the father during the pregnancy period and offspring outcomes. If the effects are due to an intrauterine exposure, then maternal exposure during pregnancy should have a clearly greater influence than paternal exposure. A different approach is that of Mendelian randomization, which utilizes genetic variants of known functional effect that can proxy for modifiable exposures. If carried by the mother, these variants would influence the intrauterine environment experienced by her offspring. These genetic variants are stable over time and can be assessed after pregnancy is complete or even after outcomes in the offspring have been observed. The variants would also not generally be related to potential confounding factors. Other epidemiological strategies are briefly reviewed. It is concluded that the naïve acceptance of findings utilizing conventional epidemiological methods in this setting is misplaced.
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The idea behind triangulation is that when we compare different approaches with assumed unrelated sources of bias, particularly if the expected direction of bias for some of the approaches is different, we would not expect to obtain the same estimates of the causal effect (unless all were unbiased).
“The idea behind triangulation is that when we compare different approaches with assumed unrelated sources of bias, particularly if the expected direction of bias for some of the approaches is different, we would not expect to obtain the same estimates of the causal effect (unless all were unbiased).7,15”
From Triangulation in aetiological epidemiology (2017) · cites this paper as [7]
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Brion, M., Ness, A., Rogers, I., Emmett, P. M., Cribb, V., Smith, G. D., & Lawlor, D. A. (2010) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28623 · Cited by 180
Self-citationManzari, N., Matvienko‐Sikar, K., Baldoni, F., O’Keeffe, G. W., & Khashan, A. S. (2019) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01745-3 · Cited by 176
Causal Inference in Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) Research
Gage, S. H., Munafò, M. R., & Davey Smith, G. (2016) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033352 · Cited by 173
Self-citationLangley, K., Heron, J., Smith, G. D., & Thapar, A. (2012) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwr510 · Cited by 173
Self-citationAssociations of maternal and paternal antenatal mood with offspring anxiety disorder at age 18 years
Capron, L., Glover, V. A. S., Pearson, R. M., Evans, J., O’Connor, T. G., Stein, A. L., Murphy, S. E., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.012 · Cited by 184
Subramanian, S. V., Corsi, D. J., Subramanyam, M. A., & Smith, G. D. (2013) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyt017 · Cited by 157
Self-citationMarroun, H. E., Hudziak, J. J., Tiemeier, H. W., Creemers, H. E., Steegers, E. A. P., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Albert Hofman, D., Verhulst, F. C., van den Brink, W., & Huizink, A. C. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.03.004 · Cited by 157
Association of Acetaminophen Use During Pregnancy With Behavioral Problems in Childhood
Stergiakouli, E., Thapar, A., & Smith, G. D. (2016) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.1775 · Cited by 152
Self-citationZhang, G., Bačelis, J., Lengyel, C., Teramo, K., Hallman, M., Helgeland, Ø., Johansson, S., Myhre, R., Sengpiel, V., Njølstad, P. R., et al. (2015) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001865 · Cited by 148
Gardner, R. M., Lee, B. K., Magnusson, C., Rai, D., Frisell, T., Karlsson, H., Idring, S., & Dalman, C. (2015) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyv081 · Cited by 141
DNA Methylation Patterns in Cord Blood DNA and Body Size in Childhood
Relton, C. L., Groom, A., Pourcain, B. S., Sayers, A. E., Swan, D., Embleton, N. D., Pearce, M. S., Ring, S. M., Northstone, K., Tobias, J. H., et al. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031821 · Cited by 149
Self-citationBrion, M., Zeegers, M., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Verhulst, F. C., Tiemeier, H. W., Lawlor, D. A., & Smith, G. D. (2010) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0651 · Cited by 138
Self-citationApproaches for drawing causal inferences from epidemiological birth cohorts: A review
Richmond, R. C., Al-Amin, A., Smith, G. D., & Relton, C. L. (2014) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.08.023 · Cited by 138
Self-citationLawlor, D. A., Richmond, R. C., Warrington, N. M., McMahon, G., Smith, G. D., Bowden, J., & Evans, D. M. (2017) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.10567.1 · Cited by 122
Self-citationSharp, G. C., Lawlor, D. A., & Richardson, S. S. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.07.035 · Cited by 128
Association of Maternal Neurodevelopmental Risk Alleles With Early-Life Exposures
Leppert, B., Havdahl, A., Riglin, L., Jones, H. J., Zheng, J., Smith, G. D., Tilling, K. M., Thapar, A., Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., & Stergiakouli, E. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0774 · Cited by 128
Self-citationTriangulating Evidence through the Inclusion of Genetically Informed Designs
Munafò, M. R., Higgins, J. P. T., & Smith, G. D. (2021) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a040659 · Cited by 125
Self-citationMaternal smoking during pregnancy and child behaviour problems: The Generation R Study
Roza, S. J., Verhulst, F. C., Jaddoe, V. W., Steegers, E. A., Mackenbach, J. P., Hofman, A., & Tiemeier, H. (2009) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyn163 · Cited by 118
Maternal smoking and child psychological problems: disentangling causal and noncausal effects
Brion, M.-J., Victora, C., Matijasevich, A., Horta, B., Anselmi, L., Steer, C., Menezes, A. M. B., Lawlor, D. A., & Davey Smith, G. (2010) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2754 · Cited by 117
Casas, M., Chatzi, L., Carsin, A., Amiano, P., Guxens, M., Kogevinas, M., Koutra, K., Lertxundi, N., Murcia, M., Rebagliato, M., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyt002 · Cited by 119
Guxens, M., der Voort, A. M. M. S., Tiemeier, H. W., Albert Hofman, D., Sunyer, J., de Jongste, J. C., Jaddoe, V. W. V., & Duijts, L. (2013) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2013.04.044 · Cited by 119
Fleten, C., Nystad, W., Stigum, H., Skjærven, R., Lawlor, D. A., Smith, G. D., & Næss, Ø. (2012) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kws134 · Cited by 110
Self-citationPrenatal alcohol exposure and offspring mental health: A systematic review
Easey, K., Dyer, M. L., Timpson, N. J., & Munafo, M. R. (2019) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.01.007 · Cited by 110
Maternal asthma severity and control during pregnancy and risk of offspring asthma
Liu, X., Agerbo, E., Schlünssen, V., Wright, R. J., Li, J., & Munk‐Olsen, T. (2017) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.05.016 · Cited by 109
Zammit, S., Thomas, K., Thompson, A., Horwood, J., Menezes, P., Gunnell, D., Hollis, C., Wolke, D., Lewis, G., & Harrison, G. (2009) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.062471 · Cited by 112
Maternal psychological distress during pregnancy and childhood health outcomes: a narrative review
Vehmeijer, F. O. L., Guxens, M., Duijts, L., & El Marroun, H. (2019) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174418000557 · Cited by 107
Howe, L. D., Matijasevich, A., Tilling, K. M., Brion, M., Leary, S. D., Smith, G. D., & Lawlor, D. A. (2012) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dys025 · Cited by 101
Self-citationShi, X., Miao, W., Nelson, J. C., & Tchetgen, E. J. T. (2020) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology) · doi:10.1111/rssb.12361 · Cited by 105
Fetal Alcohol Exposure and IQ at Age 8: Evidence from a Population-Based Birth-Cohort Study
Lewis, S. J., Zuccolo, L., Smith, G. D., Macleod, J., Rodrı́guez, S., Draper, E. S., Barrow, M., Alati, R., Sayal, K. S., Ring, S. M., et al. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049407 · Cited by 104
Self-citationThe role of longitudinal cohort studies in epigenetic epidemiology: challenges and opportunities
Ng, J. W. Y., Barrett, L. M., Wong, A., Kuh, D. J., Smith, G. D., & Relton, C. L. (2012) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2012-13-6-246 · Cited by 97
Self-citationMagnus, M. C., Karlstad, Ø., Håberg, S. E., Nafstad, P. H. J., Smith, G. D., & Nystad, W. (2016) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyv366 · Cited by 95
Self-citationLinks between co-occurring social-communication and hyperactive-inattentive trait trajectories
St. Pourcain, B., Mandy, W. P., Heron, J., Golding, J., Davey Smith, G., & Skuse, D. H. (2011) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.05.015 · Cited by 91
Self-citationSanderson, E. C. M., Macdonald-Wallis, C. M., & Smith, G. D. (2017) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyx213 · Cited by 90
Self-citationLiu, X., Agerbo, E., Ingstrup, K. G., Musliner, K., Meltzer-Brody, S., Bergink, V., & Munk-Olsen, T. (2017) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.j3668 · Cited by 90
Prenatal Nutrition, Epigenetics and Schizophrenia Risk: Can We Test Causal Effects?
Kirkbride, J. B., Susser, E., Kundaković, M., Kresovich, J. K., Smith, G. D., & Relton, C. L. (2012) · Epigenomics · doi:10.2217/epi.12.20 · Cited by 93
Self-citationBrand, J. S., Gaillard, R., West, J., McEachan, R., Wright, J., Voerman, E., Felix, J. F., Tilling, K. M., & Lawlor, D. A. (2019) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002972 · Cited by 91
Parental Smoking and Vascular Damage in Young Adult Offspring: Is Early Life Exposure Critical?
Geerts, C. C., Bots, M. L., Grobbee, D. E., & Uiterwaal, C. S. P. M. (2008) · Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/atvbaha.108.173229 · Cited by 88
Birth cohort studies: past, present and future
Lawlor, D. A., Andersen, A. N., & Batty, G. D. (2009) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyp240 · Cited by 86
Is epidemiology ready for epigenetics?
Relton, C. L., & Smith, G. D. (2012) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dys006 · Cited by 87
Self-citationAlati, R., Macleod, J., Hickman, M., Sayal, K. S., May, M., Smith, G. D., & Lawlor, D. A. (2008) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/pdr.0b013e318187cc31 · Cited by 85
Self-citationZuccolo, L., Lewis, S. J., Smith, G. D., Sayal, K. S., Draper, E. S., Fraser, R., Barrow, M., Alati, R., Ring, S. M., Macleod, J., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyt172 · Cited by 84
Self-citationMaternal intake of sugar during pregnancy and childhood respiratory and atopic outcomes
Bédard, A., Northstone, K., Henderson, A. J., & Shaheen, S. O. (2017) · European Respiratory Journal · doi:10.1183/13993003.00073-2017 · Cited by 83
Chen, J., Bačelis, J., Solé-Navais, P., Srivastava, A. K., Juodakis, J., Rouse, A., Hallman, M., Teramo, K., Melbye, M., Feenstra, B., et al. (2020) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003305 · Cited by 79
Self-citationBrix, N., Ernst, A., Lauridsen, L. L. B., Parner, E. T., Olsen, J., Henriksen, T. B., & Ramlau‐Hansen, C. H. (2018) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwy206 · Cited by 83
Richmond, R. C., Timpson, N. J., Felix, J. F., Palmer, T., Gaillard, R., McMahon, G., Smith, G. D., Jaddoe, V. W. V., & Lawlor, D. A. (2017) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002221 · Cited by 83
Self-citationFetal growth and psychiatric and socioeconomic problems: population-based sibling comparison
Class, Q. A., Rickert, M. E., Larsson, H., Lichtenstein, P., & D'Onofrio, B. M. (2014) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.143693 · Cited by 80
An epidemiological, developmental and clinical overview of cannabis use during pregnancy
Marroun, H. E., Brown, Q. L., Lund, I. O., Coleman‐Cowger, V. H., Loree, A. M., Chawla, D., & Washio, Y. (2018) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.08.036 · Cited by 78
Daraki, V. N., Roumeliotaki, T., Koutra, K., Georgiou, V., Kampouri, M., Kyriklaki, A., Vafeiadi, M., Papavasiliou, S. S., Kogevinas, M., & Chatzi, L. (2017) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-016-0934-2 · Cited by 78
Tyrrell, J., Huikari, V., Christie, J. T., Cavadino, A., Bakker, R., Brion, M., Geller, F., Paternoster, L., Myhre, R., Potter, C., et al. (2012) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/dds372 · Cited by 75
Self-citationPrenatal paracetamol exposure and asthma: further evidence against confounding
Shaheen, S. O., Newson, R. B., Smith, G. D., & Henderson, A. J. (2010) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyq049 · Cited by 75
Self-citationAssociation Between Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Severe Mental Illness in Offspring
Quinn, P. D., Rickert, M. E., Weibull, C. E., Johansson, A. L. V., Lichtenstein, P., Almqvist, C., Larsson, H., Iliadou, A. N., & D'Onofrio, B. M. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0456 · Cited by 72
Ben‐Shlomo, Y., Mishra, G. D., & Kuh, D. J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09834-0_56 · Cited by 73
Davey Smith, G. (2012) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dys016 · Cited by 68
Self-citationMarroun, H. E., Bolhuis, K., Franken, I. H. A., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hillegers, M. H. J., Lahey, B. B., & Tiemeier, H. W. (2018) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyy186 · Cited by 70
Galobardes, B., Granell, R., Sterne, J. A. C., Hughes, R. A., Mejía-Lancheros, C., Smith, G. D., & Henderson, J. (2015) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwv045 · Cited by 67
Self-citationAntibiotic use during pregnancy and asthma in preschool children: the influence of confounding
Mulder, B., Pouwels, K. B., Schuiling‐Veninga, C. C. M., Bos, H. J., de Vries, T. W., Jick, S. S., & Hak, E. (2016) · Clinical & Experimental Allergy · doi:10.1111/cea.12756 · Cited by 65
Macleod, J., Hickman, M., Bowen, E., Alati, R., Tilling, K., & Smith, G. (2008) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02301.x · Cited by 70
Self-citationUse of paracetamol during pregnancy and child neurological development
de Fays, L., Malderen, K. V., Smet, K. D., Sawchik, J., Verlinden, V., Hamdani, J., Dogné, J., & Dan, B. (2015) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/dmcn.12745 · Cited by 64
Zuccolo, L., Fitz-Simon, N., Gray, R., Ring, S. M., Sayal, K. S., Smith, G. D., & Lewis, S. J. (2009) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddp388 · Cited by 63
Self-citationEl Marroun, H., Tiemeier, H., Muetzel, R. L., Thijssen, S., van der Knaap, N. J. F., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Fernández, G., Verhulst, F. C., & White, T. J. H. (2016) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22524 · Cited by 62
Parental BMI and Childhood Undernutrition in India: An Assessment of Intrauterine Influence
Subramanian, S. V., Ackerson, L. K., & Smith, G. D. (2010) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0222 · Cited by 62
Self-citationSørensen, T. I. A., Ajslev, T. A., Ängquist, L. H., Morgen, C. S., Ciuchi, I. G., & Smith, G. D. (2016) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.129171 · Cited by 63
Self-citationPower, G. M., Sanderson, E. C. M., Pagoni, P., Fraser, A., Morris, T., Prince, C., Frayling, T. M., Heron, J., Richardson, T. G., Richmond, R. C., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-023-01032-1 · Cited by 61
Self-citationMendelian randomization in nutritional epidemiology
Qi, L. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00218.x · Cited by 57
The causal web of foetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a review and causal diagram
McQuire, C., Daniel, R., Hurt, L. S., Kemp, A., & Paranjothy, S. (2019) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1264-3 · Cited by 63
Parental Smoking and Vascular Damage in Their 5-year-old Children
Geerts, C. C., Bots, M. L., van der Ent, C. K., Grobbee, D. E., & Uiterwaal, C. S. P. M. (2011) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0249 · Cited by 56
Kovess–Masféty, V., Keyes, K. M., Hamilton, A. D., Pez, O., Bitfoi, A., Koç, C., Goelitz, D., Kuijpers, R., Lesinskienė, S., Mihova, Z., et al. (2014) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0641-9 · Cited by 55
Chang, H. Y., Keyes, K. M., Lee, K., Choi, I. A., Kim, S. J., Kim, K. W., Shin, Y. H., Ahn, K. M., Hong, S., & Shin, Y. (2013) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2013.11.006 · Cited by 57
Alati, R., Smith, G. D., Lewis, S. J., Sayal, K. S., Draper, E. S., Golding, J., Fraser, R. B., & Gray, R. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074844 · Cited by 55
Self-citationVannuccini, S., Lazzeri, L., Orlandini, C., Tosti, C., Clifton, V. L., & Petraglia, F. (2016) · Fertility and Sterility · doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.12.127 · Cited by 53
Genetic studies of gestational duration and preterm birth
Zhang, G., Srivastava, A. K., Bačelis, J., Juodakis, J., Jacobsson, B., & Muglia, L. J. (2018) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2018.05.003 · Cited by 56
Sujan, A. C., Öberg, A. S., Quinn, P. D., & D'Onofrio, B. M. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13004 · Cited by 55
Rice, F. J., Langley, K., Woodford, C., Smith, G. D., & Thapar, A. (2018) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579418000421 · Cited by 50
Self-citationRobinson, M., McLean, N. J., Oddy, W. H., Mattes, E., Bulsara, M., Li, J., Zubrick, S. R., Stanley, F. J., & Newnham, J. P. (2010) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2009.088658 · Cited by 49
Taylor, A. E., Howe, L. D., Heron, J., Ware, J. J., Hickman, M., & Munafo, M. R. (2014) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12514 · Cited by 50
Iliadou, A. N., Koupil, I., Villamor, E., Altman, D., Hultman, C. M., Långström, N., & Cnattingius, S. (2010) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyq064 · Cited by 49
Paternal and maternal obesity but not gestational weight gain is associated with type 1 diabetes
Magnus, M., Olsen, S., Granstrøm, C., Lund-Blix, N. A., Svensson, J., Johannesen, J., Fraser, A., Skrivarhaug, T., Joner, G., Njølstad, P., et al. (2018) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyx266 · Cited by 38
Random Allocation in Observational Data
Smith, G. D. (2011) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0b013e31821d0426 · Cited by 50
Self-citationMaternal Smoking in Pregnancy and Offspring Depression: a cross cohort and negative control study
Taylor, A. E., Carslake, D., de Mola, C. L., Rosenqvist, M. A., Nilsen, T. I. L., Bjørngaard, J. H., Horta, B. L., Pearson, R. M., Rai, D., Galanti, M. R., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-11836-3 · Cited by 49
Self-citationSmith, G. D., Leary, S. D., Ness, A., & Lawlor, D. A. (2009) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9173-5_1 · Cited by 47
Self-citationSujan, A. C., Quinn, P. D., Rickert, M. E., Wiggs, K. K., Lichtenstein, P., Larsson, H., Almqvist, C., Öberg, A. S., & D'Onofrio, B. M. (2019) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002980 · Cited by 47
Parental asthma occurrence, exacerbations and risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Liu, X., Dalsgaard, S., Munk‐Olsen, T., Li, J., Wright, R. J., & Momen, N. C. (2019) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2019.08.198 · Cited by 50
El Marroun, H., Zou, R., Muetzel, R. L., Jaddoe, V. W., Verhulst, F. C., White, T., & Tiemeier, H. (2018) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22722 · Cited by 45
Metadata
- Authors
- Smith, G. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Smith, George Davey
- ORCID
- Smith, George Davey
- Venue
- Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2008-01-22
- Volume
- 102
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 245-256
- ISSN
- 1742-7835 (ISSN-L)
- 1742-7843
- OpenAlex
- W1564669788
- Cited by
- 257
- References
- 94
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 2.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- erratum (2009-10-13)
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Health, Environment, Cognitive Aging
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Keywords
- prenatal exposure, offspring outcomes, paternal exposure, confounding, birth cohort studies, Mendelian randomization, causal inference, intrauterine environment
- MeSH terms
- Female, Genotype, Humans, Male, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Genetic Variation, Epidemiologic Studies, Maternal Exposure, Paternal Exposure
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