Protein–protein interaction in insulin signaling and the molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance
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Perspective Figure 1 Schematic illustration of major signaling pathways of insulin action.The phosphorylated insulin receptor binds and phosphorylates IRS proteins and Shc, which bind differentially to various downstream signaling proteins.PI3-kinase is critical for metabolic actions of insulin, such as glucose transport, glycogen synthesis, and protein synthesis, whereas Grb-2/SOS complex, which activates the MAP kinase cascade, is critical in mitogenic response.PI3-kinase probably modulates the mitogenic response as well.This series continues from the March 1999, no.6, issue.
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PI3K inhibitors impair glucose transport and block activation of glycogen synthase and HK-II expression.
“Inhibitors of PI3K impair glucose transport and block the activation of glycogen synthase and hexokinase- (HK-) II expression [138–146]”
From Pathogenesis of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle (2010) · cites this paper as [143]
Phosphorylated tyrosine residues of IRS-1 mediate association with the 85-kDa regulatory subunit of PI3K, activating the enzyme.
“The phosphorylated tyrosine residues of IRS-1 mediate an association with the 85-kDa regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), leading to activation of the enzyme [138–140, 143, 144].”
From Pathogenesis of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle (2010) · cites this paper as [143]
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“The best-studied SH2 proteins that bind to phosphorylated IRS proteins are adaptor molecules, such as the regulatory subunit of PI3K, or the adaptor molecule Grb2 , which associates with son-of-sevenless (SOS) to activate the Ras–MAPK pathway (reviewed in Ref”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe NLRP3 inflammasome instigates obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance
Vandanmagsar, B., Youm, Y.-H., Ravussin, A., Galgani, J. E., Stadler, K., Mynatt, R. L., Ravussin, E., Stephens, J. M., & Dixit, V. D. (2011) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.2279 · Cited by 2,655 · see citing works
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“Despite tremendous advances in molecular biology and the continued identification of increasingly more molecules involved in the insulin signalling cascade [19], the molecular mechanism(s) that underlies the development of insulin resistance in humans still remains elusive.”
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InfluentialAlzheimer’s disease is type 3 diabetes—Evidence reviewed
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BackgroundSelf-citationPathogenesis of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle
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“Following the activation of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase, specific intracellular proteins, of which at least nine have been identified [138, 143], become phosphorylated.”
BackgroundHormonal regulation of adiponectin gene expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes
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“In addition, genetic depletion of IRS-2 impairs neuronal proliferation during development, and promotes accumulation of phosphorylated tau containing neurofibrillary tangles in the hippocampi of affected old mice [52, 53].”
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“This activates signaling pathways responsible for the pleiotropic actions of insulin (Virkamäki et al., 1999).”
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“pathways are believed to play a role.(9,10) Insulin resistance, which is usually present before the onset of diabetes, is determined by a number of factors, including genetics, age, obesity and, later in the disease, hyperglycemia itself.”
BackgroundSOCS-3 Is an Insulin-induced Negative Regulator of Insulin Signaling
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“The metabolic effects of insulin action are dependent on P13K-AKT signaling (27).”
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“As such, it can be considered a marker of insulin resistance and obesity [56].”
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“Hyperinsulinemia , in turn , may downregulate insulin receptors and therefore reduce insulin efficiency , resulting in insulin resistance ( Virkamaki et al , 1999 ) .”
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“To date, four different IRS molecules have been cloned [19].”
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“Molecules such as Shc, IR substrate (IRS) (1,4), and Gab-1 engage the IR directly and provide a docking interface with downstream substrates.”
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BackgroundSuppressors of Cytokine Signaling-1 and -6 Associate with and Inhibit the Insulin Receptor
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“[19] 2.”
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“Once insulin binds to the a subunit, the b subunit is activated with a series of tyrosine phosphorylations in the various domains of the b subunit, which can modulate tyrosine kinase activity (18).”
BackgroundChapter 21 Interleukin‐6 and Insulin Resistance
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“More specifically, this involves changes in the activity of the kinases responsible for insulin signal propagation, concomitant phosphorylation changes, and ultimately differences in target gene expression and/or functional changes (Virkamaki et al., 1999; White, 2002, 2003).”
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Self-citationAkt Signaling Mediates Postnatal Heart Growth in Response to Insulin and Nutritional Status
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Self-citationInsulin Signaling in the Pancreatic β-Cell
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Self-citationRetractedMolecular Mechanism of Insulin-Induced Degradation of Insulin Receptor Substrate 1
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“Tyrosyl phosphorylation of IRS-1 promotes the interaction of IRS-1 and SH2 domain-containing proteins, including PI 3-kinase, Grb2, Nck, Fyn, and SHP-2, leading to the activation of signaling pathways mediated by these molecules (77, 79).”
BackgroundInfluentialHepatocyte CYP2E1 overexpression and steatohepatitis lead to impaired hepatic insulin signaling
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“Once phosphorylated, Akt contributes to various biological processes including regulation of glucose uptake (Virkamaki et al. 1999).”
BackgroundReducing Plasma Membrane Sphingomyelin Increases Insulin Sensitivity
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“It has been suggested that lipid rafts play an important role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance (61).”
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“The insulin resistance/metabolic syndrome—characterized by the variable coexistence of hyperinsulinemia, dislipidemia, obesity, and hypertension—is influenced by both environmental and genetic background, the latter being mostly unknown (Trischitta et al. 1997; Virkamaki et al. 1999).”
BackgroundSelective Insulin Resistance in the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome1
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“Phosphorylated tyrosine residues on these substrates then bind to a variety of molecules to activate signaling pathways, such as those mediating carbohydrate metabolism, lipogenesis, protein synthesis, gene transcription, and cell growth/differentiation (12, 13 ).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMetabolic programming in animals
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“Several acquired factors including hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), increased circulating free fatty acids, ceramide and nuclear factor kappa-B have been implicated in altering insulin signaling in patients with obesity and T2D via one or more of the above mechanisms [33].”
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“PI 3-kinase is recognized as the critical molecule for mediating the various metabolic actions of insulin (16, 42, 53).”
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“phosphorylation of Akt is necessary for increased glucose uptake, whereas Ser(473) phosphorylation is not (32, 59).”
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“There is considerable evidence that the MEK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway is involved in serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 (25,29–32), resulting in decreased IRS-1 tyrosine phosphorylation and inhibition of association with PI 3-kinase (33), a critical step for propagating the insulin signal to metabolic pathways (10,11).”
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“In myoblasts, and in all likelihood in neurons, too, insulin has been found to induce mitogenesis throughout two independent pathways acting in synergy, PI-3 kinase/p 70 S 6 kinase, and p43/p44-MAP kinase ( Virkamaki et al., 1999 ) along with an increase in the proportion of proliferating cells in S and G2/M phases of…”
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The Phosphotyrosine Interactome of the Insulin Receptor Family and Its Substrates IRS-1 and IRS-2
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“Fyn has been reported to bind to IRS-1 and IRS-2 (47) and to tyrosine phosphorylated Cbl after insulin stimulation (78).”
BackgroundInsulin Stimulates PKCζ-mediated Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 (IRS-1)
Liu, Y., Paz, K., Herschkovitz, A., Alt, A., Tennenbaum, T., Sampson, S. R., Ohba, M., Kuroki, T., LeRoith, D., & Zick, Y. (2001) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m007281200 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
RetractedKabayama, K. (2004) · Glycobiology · doi:10.1093/glycob/cwh135 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“Similarities between these cell culture results and the findings in many cases of clinical insulin resistance ( Virkamaki et al., 1999 ), thereby suggesting a potential role for microdomains in the pathogenesis of this disorder.”
BackgroundResult
- Authors
- Virkamäki, A., Ueki, K., & Kahn, C. R.
- Affiliations
- Joslin Diabetes Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kahn, C. Ronald
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Investigation
- Published
- 1999-04-01
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 931-943
- ISSN
- 0021-9738 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC408269
- OpenAlex
- W2095252238
- Cited by
- 854
- References
- 176
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 4.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Investigation (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- European Foundation for the Study of Diabetes
- National Institutes of Health (DK31036)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R37DK031036, DK 33201, R01DK031036, DK45935, DK31036, R01DK045935, R01DK033201)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Metabolism, Diabetes, and Cancer
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling in cancer
- Keywords
- insulin signaling, insulin resistance, protein-protein interaction, insulin receptor, Shc, PI3-kinase, MAP kinase cascade, glucose transport, glycogen synthesis, mitogen response
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Insulin, Insulin Resistance, Phosphorylation, Protein Binding, Receptor, Insulin, Signal Transduction, Gene Targeting, src Homology Domains, Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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