The DOI matches its Crossref record; 12 of the 12 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Social Class, School and Non-School Environments, and Black/White Inequalities in Children's Learning
Abstract
As social and economic stratification between black and white Americans persists at the dawn of the twenty-first century, disparities in educational outcomes remain an especially formidable barrier. Recent research on the black/white achievement gap points to a perplexing pattern in this regard. Schools appear to exacerbate black/white disparities in learning while simultaneously slowing the growth of social class gaps. How might this occur? Using 1st grade data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), I test—and find support for—the proposition that school factors play an elevated role in generating the black/white achievement gap while non-school factors primarily drive social class inequalities. These findings help explain why black/white achievement disparities grow mostly during the school year (when schools are in session and have their greatest impact on students' learning) while class gaps widen mostly during the summer (when school is out of session and non-school influences dominate). I conclude by discussing the implications for future research, especially as they pertain to what appears to be the most important contributor to the black/white achievement gap: school racial segregation.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Black students' school success: Coping with the ?burden of ?acting white??
Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1007/bf01112192 · Cited by 3,323
Allison, P. (2002) · doi:10.4135/9781412985079 · Cited by 2,050
Using SAS PROC MIXED to Fit Multilevel Models, Hierarchical Models, and Individual Growth Models
Singer, J. D. (1998) · Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics · doi:10.2307/1165280 · Cited by 1,092
When Bigger Is Not Better: Family Size, Parental Resources, and Children's Educational Performance
Downey, D. B. (1995) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096320 · Cited by 959
Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2004) · Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/003465304323031049 · Cited by 936
Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year
Downey, D. B., von Hippel, P. T., & Broh, B. A. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900501 · Cited by 853
Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning Gap
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2007) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240707200202 · Cited by 763
Inequality in Preschool Education and School Readiness
Magnuson, K. A., Meyers, M. K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2004) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312041001115 · Cited by 691 · cited 2×
“Some studies find that center-based care boosts children’s academic skills relative to parental care (Magnuson et al. 2004), but longitudinal analyses of students’ early school-year gains, which are better able to 686—–AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW”
BackgroundSecondary School Tracking and Educational Inequality: Compensation, Reinforcement, or Neutrality?
Gamoran, A., & Mare, R. D. (1989) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/229114 · Cited by 663
Sibship Size and Intellectual Development: Is the Relationship Causal?
Guo, G., & VanWey, L. K. (1999) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2657524 · Cited by 243
Cited by
von Hippel, P. T., Workman, J., & Downey, D. B. (2018) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040718801760 · Cited by 214
Bennett, P. R., Lutz, A. C., & Jayaram, L. (2012) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040711431585 · Cited by 184
Decomposing School Resegregation: Social Closure, Racial Imbalance, and Racial Isolation
Fiel, J. E. (2013) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122413496252 · Cited by 160
Effects of School Racial Composition on K–12 Mathematics Outcomes: A Metaregression Analysis
Mickelson, R. A., Bottia, M. C., & Lambert, R. (2013) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654312475322 · Cited by 140
von Hippel, P., & Hamrock, C. (2019) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v6.a3 · Cited by 149
“Despite its shortcomings, the number-right score was widely used in early longitudinal analyses of the ECLS-K (Condron, 2009; Downey et al., 2004; Downey, von Hippel, & Hughes, 2008; Fryer & Levitt, 2006; Reardon, 2003; von Hippel, 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Condron, D. J.
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-10
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 685-708
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-8271
- OpenAlex
- W2059733685
- Cited by
- 202
- References
- 12
- FWCI
- 35.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Social Class, School and Non-School Environments, and Black/White Inequalities in Children's Learning. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1177/000312240907400501
- The paper
- Condron, D. J. (2009). Social Class, School and Non-School Environments, and Black/White Inequalities in Children's Learning. American Sociological Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400501
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
