Stereotype Threat Undermines Academic Learning
Abstract
Two experiments tested whether stereotype threat can undermine the acquisition of academic knowledge and thus harm performance even in nonthreatening settings. In Experiment 1, Black and White students studied rare words in either nonthreatening or threatening conditions. One to two weeks later, participants recalled word definitions, half in a nonthreatening "warm-up" and half in a threatening "test." Replicating past research, Black students performed worse on the test than on the warm-up. But importantly, Black students who had studied in the threatening rather than nonthreatening environment performed worse even on the warm-up. White students were unaffected. In Experiment 2, a value affirmation eliminated the learning-threat effect and provided evidence of psychological process. The results suggest that stereotype threat causes a form of "double jeopardy" whereby threat can undermine both learning and performance. The discussion addresses implications for the interpretation of group differences and for understanding how brief threat-reducing interventions can produce long-lasting benefits.
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Bringing the social identities and/or stereotypes of students of certain typically low-status groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn, their motivation and persistence on academic tasks, and even among high achievers their commitment to studies and intentions to pursue related careers.
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011
People can thus better deal with the threat in a constructive way, rather than spend mental energy on avoidance, suppression, and rationalization.
“People can thus better deal with the threat in a constructive way, rather than spend mental energy on avoidance, suppression, and rationalization (see Koole et al. 1999, Taylor & Walton 2011).”
From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Taylor & Walton 2011
Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype.
“Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype (Martens et al. 2006, Shapiro et al. 2012, Taylor & Walton 2011).”
From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Taylor & Walton 2011
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“Walton and Cohen (2007, 2011) found that a brief intervention to buttress Black students’ sense of social belonging in college in the face of negative stereotypes raised their GPA from sophomore through senior year, cutting the racial achievement gap in half.”
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Recursive Processes in Self-Affirmation: Intervening to Close the Minority Achievement Gap
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“Affirmations may be more effective when delivered proximal to but before a threatening experience (Cohen et al., 2009; Critcher, Dunning, & Armor, 2010; cf. Rydell et al., 2010).”
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“Third, in both environments routine evaluative instructions trigger stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and value affirmations reduce threat (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Martens et al., 2006).”
BackgroundWhen Self-Affirmations Reduce Defensiveness: Timing Is Key
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Social-Psychological Interventions in Education: They’re Not Magic
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Self-citationThe Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention
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Canning, E. A., Muenks, K., Green, D. J., & Murphy, M. C. (2019) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau4734 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
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Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., & Ryan, A. M. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111322 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Taylor, V. J., & Walton, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Taylor, Valerie Jones
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-05-09
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1055-1067
- ISSN
- 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7433
- OpenAlex
- W2049152442
- Cited by
- 184
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 29.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Society for Personality and Social Psychology
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, academic learning, academic performance, racial differences, Black students, values affirmation, threat effects, word recall, group differences
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Prejudice, Semantics, United States, White People
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