Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self‐affirmation on women's intellectual performance

Martens, Andy; Johns, Michael; Greenberg, Jeff; Schimel, Jeff

doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010

Cited by 460Social and Intergroup PsychologyEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self‐affirmation on women's intellectual performance

Martens, Andy, Johns, Michael, Greenberg, Jeff, Schimel, Jeff·2006·Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010

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Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype.
“Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype (Martens et al. 2006, Shapiro et al. 2012, Taylor & Walton 2011).”
From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Martens et al. 2006
Women in the diagnostic condition who completed a self-affirmation performed as well as women in the no-threat condition and no differently from male college students.
“women in the diagnostic condition who completed a self-aYrmation-where they wrote about an important value unrelated to math or to their gender-performed as well as women in the no-threat condition and no diVerent from male college students.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Martens et al., 2006
Self-affirmation appears to reduce stereotype threat among students in laboratory situations.
“Given the evidence that self-aYrmation appears to reduce stereotype threat among students in laboratory situations (Martens et al., 2006;Schimel et al., 2004)”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Martens et al., 2006

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The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory
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“Given the evidence that self‐aYrmation appears to reduce stereotype threat among students in laboratory situations (Martens et al., 2006; Schimel et al., 2004), perhaps having students engage in aYrmation of non‐academic aspects of themselves in school settings could produce positive educational…”
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“Promisingly, lab studies demonstrate that affirmations can improve the performance of students working under the specter of a negative stereotype (Martens et al. 2006, Shapiro et al. 2012, Taylor & Walton 2011).”
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“46 Martens et al. (2006) 1 of 2 Published Female undergrads 22 0.”
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“This self-affirmation restores self-integrity (Steele 1988), leading to improved performance (Frantz et al. 2004, Martens et al. 2006, Schimel et al. 2004).”
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“For example, Martens et al. (2006) randomly assigned college participants to complete a difficult math test that was described as either diagnostic (stereotype threat) or non-diagnostic (no threat control) of math abilities.”
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“Self-affirmation enables for example to negatively stereotyped group members to perceive others as being less prejudiced (Adams et al., 2006) or to cope efficiently to stereotype threat (Martens et al., 2005).”
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“…an implicit affirmation was shown to influence behavior in much the same way as the standard affirmations have done (Cohen et al., 2006; see also Martens et al., 2006; Schimel et al., 2004 ), the study does not address whether people are aware of the influence of a standard affirmation, such as…”
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“…(Johns et al. 2008; see also Jamieson et al. 2010); when they learn to displace negative thoughts with neutral thoughts (Logel et al. 2009a); andwhen they reflect on important personal values and other sources of identity unrelated to the threat (Martens et al. 2006; see also Cohen et al. 2009).”
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“And indeed, U.S. and French research indicates that an efficient means to counteract stereotype threat is to affirm one’s self-concept in valued domains (Croizet et al. 2001; Martens et al. 2006).”
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“However, events and information that threaten the self are often collective in nature, such as the failure of one’s group (Sherman & Kim, 2005) or the notion that one’s group has been a target of stereotypes (Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006; Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006 ) or benefited from racism (A…”
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“…accepted December 23, 2012 (Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006), and improve the academic performance of stigmatized group members (G. L. Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006; G. L. Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009; Martens et al., 2006; Miyake et al., 2010).”
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Derks, B., van Laar, C., & Ellemers, N. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013068 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Whereas previous research focusing on members of devalued groups has revealed the beneficial effects of self-affirmation on performance (Cohen et al., 2006; Martens et al., 2006) and of group affirmation on selfimprovement motivation (Derks et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
I can math!”: reducing math anxiety and increasing math self-efficacy using a mindfulness and growth mindset-based intervention in first-year students
Samuel, T. S., & Warner, J. (2021) · Community College Journal of Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/10668926.2019.1666063 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
An Examination of Age-Based Stereotype Threat About Cognitive Decline
Barber, S. J. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616656345 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-Affirmation Improves Problem-Solving under Stress
Creswell, J. D., Dutcher, J. M., Klein, W. M. P., Harris, P. R., & Levine, J. M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062593 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Thus, our findings identify a potential mechanism by which a self-affirmation intervention at the beginning of a school term can improve at-risk students’ academic achievement, reducing achievement disparities between African Americans and European Americans and between women and men in science [12–15].”
Background
Are all interventions created equal? A multi-threat approach to tailoring stereotype threat interventions.
Shapiro, J. R., Williams, A. M., & Hambarchyan, M. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030461 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“The present research advances stereotype threat theory and research in a number of ways.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
A Metacognitive Perspective on the Cognitive Deficits Experienced in Intellectually Threatening Environments
Schmader, T., Forbes, C. E., Zhang, S., & Berry Mendes, W. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208330450 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Stereotypical Perception in Management: A Review and Expansion of Role Congruity Theory
Triana, M. D. C., Song, R., Um, C. T., & Huang, L. V. (2023) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063231180836 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Stereotype manipulation effects on math and spatial test performance: A meta-analysis
Doyle, R. A., & Voyer, D. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.018 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Confidence Mediates the Sex Difference in Mental Rotation Performance
Estes, Z., & Felker, S. (2011) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9875-5 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“, 2005) among women, whereas boosting females’ selfevaluation eliminates the stereotype threat effect (Martens et al., 2006; Rydell et al., 2009).”
Background
Exams disadvantage women in introductory biology
Ballen, C. J., Salehi, S., & Cotner, S. H. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186419 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Our findings underscore the likelihood that performance during high-pressure testing may not reflect actual content knowledge for some underrepresented groups [41, 42].”
Background
Spatial Anxiety Relates to Spatial Abilities as a Function of Working Memory in Children
Ramirez, G., Gunderson, E. A., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.616214 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“Further, although boys’ scores on the CSAQ were lower than girls’ scores, their scores on this test also were normally distributed (see Table 1).”
Exploring the Moderating Role of Context on the Mathematics Performance of Females Under Stereotype Threat: A Meta-Analysis
Picho, K., Rodriguez, A., & Finnie, L. (2012) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2012.737380 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Feeling Better But Doing Worse: Effects of Facebook Self-Presentation on Implicit Self-Esteem and Cognitive Task Performance
Toma, C. L. (2013) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2012.762189 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Affirming independence: Exploring mechanisms underlying a values affirmation intervention for first-generation students.
Tibbetts, Y., Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Boston, J. S., Priniski, S. J., & Hyde, J. S. (2016) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000049 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Gender disparities in second-semester college physics: The incremental effects of a “smog of bias”
Kost, L. E., Pollock, S. J., & Finkelstein, N. D. (2010) · Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevstper.6.020112 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
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Casad, B. J., & Bryant, W. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00008 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Job Crafting: Older Workers’ Mechanism for Maintaining Person-Job Fit
Wong, C. M., & Tetrick, L. E. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01548 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“Individuals may shift to alternative means to meet their overarching needs for a positive sense of self in response, exemplified by findings on employing self-affirmation to combat stereotype threat (Martens et al., 2006; Sherman et al., 2013).”
Background
Stereotype Threat and Female Communication Styles
von Hippel, C., Wiryakusuma, C., Bowden, J., & Shochet, M. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211410439 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Study 2 also demonstrated that selfaffirmation eliminated this effect, presumably by reducing the psychological threat posed by the stereotype (e.g., Martens et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethod
Do Mass Mediated Stereotypes Harm Members of Negatively Stereotyped Groups? A Meta-Analytical Review on Media-Generated Stereotype Threat and Stereotype Lift
Appel, M., & Weber, S. (2017) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650217715543 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Stereotype threat effects in settings with features likely versus unlikely in operational test settings: A meta-analysis.
Shewach, O. R., Sackett, P. R., & Quint, S. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000420 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Synthesizing positive psychological interventions: Suggestions for conducting and interpreting meta-analyses
Schueller, S. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Parks, A. C. (2014) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v4i1.5 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
A longitudinal examination of the role of stereotype threat and racial climate on college outcomes for minorities at elite institutions
Fischer, M. J. (2009) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-009-9105-3 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“In this situation, the reduced threat condition may explain to the students before taking the exam that this particular exam has been constructed to eliminate gender bias ( Martens et al. 2006; Spencer et al. 1999) or, alternately, students in the experimental group may take the exam in a same gender setting and the r…”
Background
A scalable goal-setting intervention closes both the gender and ethnic minority achievement gap
Schippers, M. C., Scheepers, A. W. A., & Peterson, J. B. (2015) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/palcomms.2015.14 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“…using such techniques as values affirmation (writing about important values; for reviews see Miyake et al., 2010; Cohen and Sherman, 2014; Walton, 2014), and self-affirmation (writing about a valued self-relevant characteristic such as sense of humour or social skills, Martens et al., 2006).”
Method
Is stereotype threat a useful construct for organizational psychology research and practice?
Kalokerinos, E. K., von Hippel, C., & Zacher, H. (2014) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/iops.12167 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Stereotype Threat and the Exercise/ Dietary Health Intentions of Overweight Women
Seacat, J. D., & Mickelson, K. D. (2009) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105309103575 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The threat vs. challenge of car parking for women: How self- and group affirmation affect cardiovascular responses
Derks, B., Scheepers, D. T., van Laar, C., & Ellemers, N. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.08.016 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…in the current study, also because previous research on the effects of self-affirmation (e.g., Cohen et al., 2006; Koole & Van Knippenberg, 2007; Martens et al., 2006; Sherman & Cohen, 2002) and group affirmation (Derks, Van Laar & Ellemers, 2006; 2009; Sherman et al., 2007) has convincingly…”
BackgroundResult
Beyond test performance: a broader view of stereotype threat
Lewis, N. A., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.05.002 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Can mixed assessment methods make biology classes more equitable?
Cotner, S. H., & Ballen, C. J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189610 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
The effect of negative performance stereotypes on learning.
Rydell, R. J., Rydell, M. T., & Boucher, K. L. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021139 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Don't Call Me a Student-Athlete”: The Effect of Identity Priming on Stereotype Threat for Academically Engaged African American College Athletes
Stone, J., Harrison, C. K., & Mottley, J. (2012) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2012.655624 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“As previously suggested, if they receive more preferential treatment on campus than African American athletes, then the label “student-athlete” may activate more positive, self-affirming associations that provide a buffer against stereotype threat (Martens, Johns, Greeneberg, & Schimel, 2006 ).”
Background
Healthcare Stereotype Threat in Older Adults in the Health and Retirement Study
Abdou, C. M., Fingerhut, A. W., Jackson, J. S., & Wheaton, F. (2015) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.034 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
The role of prevention focus under stereotype threat: Initial cognitive mobilization is followed by depletion.
Ståhl, T., van Laar, C., & Ellemers, N. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027678 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Ageism and its clinical impact in oncogeriatry: state of knowledge and therapeutic leads
Schroyen, S., Adam, S., Jérusalem, G., & Pierre, M. (2014) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s70942 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“However, when a self-affirmation paradigm is applied (eg, participants have to write a paragraph on a value that is personally important to them), the stereotype threat disappears; self-affirming women who autoaffirmed performed at the same level as women in the control condition.(55) Moreover, this concept can be use…”
Background
Reconceptualizing Self-Affirmation With the Trigger and Channel Framework: Lessons From the Health Domain
Ferrer, R. A., & Cohen, G. L. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868318797036 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Jedi public health: Co-creating an identity-safe culture to promote health equity
Geronimus, A. T., James, S. A., Destin, M., Graham, L. F., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Murphy, M. C., Pearson, J. A., Omari, A., & Thompson, J. P. (2016) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.02.008 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Stereotyped: Investigating Gender in Introductory Science Courses
Lauer, S., Momsen, J. L., Offerdahl, E. G., Kryjevskaia, M., Christensen, W. M., & Montplaisir, L. M. (2013) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.12-08-0133 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“, 2006; Walton and Cohen, 2007) and women (Martens et al., 2006; Miyake et al., 2010), with effects that may persist over time (Cohen et al.”
Background
Self-affirmation can enable goal disengagement.
Vohs, K. D., Park, J. K., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030478 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“…attempting a nonfailure version of the task improved performance expectations and actual performance relative to participants who did not self-affirm, a finding consistent with prior work on the benefits of self-Figure affirmation (Epton & Harris, 2008; Martens et al., 2006; Sherman et al., 2000).”
Influential
The relation between executive functions and math intelligence in preschool children: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Emslander, V., & Scherer, R. (2022) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000369 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“This conceptualization of math skills as part of general intelligence, which we refer to as “math intelligence” (e.g., Dweck, 2014; Martens et al., 2006; Rattan et al., 2012), is based on two elements.”
Background
The Neuroscience of Stigma and Stereotype Threat
Derks, B., Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. (2008) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207088036 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Information about chemotherapy‐associated cognitive problems contributes to cognitive problems in cancer patients
Schagen, S. B., Das, E., & Vermeulen, I. (2011) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.2011 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Social psychological research suggests that teaching target groups about stereotype threat or providing them with positive affirmations may attenuate the negative effects of stereotype threat [21,22].”
Background
Stereotype Threat and Gender Differences in Performance on a Novel Visuospatial Task
Campbell, S. M., & Collaer, M. L. (2009) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01521.x · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“There is some evidence that gender stereotypes exist regarding spatial task performance (Hall & Carter, 1999), but it is likely that differences in these skills are somewhat less culturally salient than those for other cognitive domains, such as mathematics (Martens et al., 2006).”
Background
Vacation Posts on Facebook: A Model for Incidental Vicarious Travel Consumption
Marder, B. L., Archer‐Brown, C., Colliander, J., & Lambert, A. (2018) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287518786465 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Furthermore, Martens et al. (2006) found that female respondents were able to mitigate negative feeling by writing about aspects they valued about themselves.”
Background
Affirmative Meritocracy
Walton, G. M., Spencer, S. J., & Erman, S. (2013) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2012.01041.x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Facilitating women’s success in business: Interrupting the process of stereotype threat through affirmation of personal values.
Kinias, Z., & Sim, J. J. (2016) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000139 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Capitalizing on Multiple Social Identities to Prevent Stereotype Threat: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem
Rydell, R. J., & Boucher, K. L. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209355062 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Women and mental rotation: Incremental theory and spatial strategy use enhance performance.
Moè, A., Meneghetti, C., & Cadinu, M. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.030 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Stereotypes as Stumbling-Blocks
Silverman, A. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214542800 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
A Review of the Stereotype Threat Literature and Its Application in a Neurological Population
Kit, K. A., Tuokko, H. A., & Mateer, C. A. (2008) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9059-9 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Schimel et al. (2004) and Martens et al. (2006) found that females who self-affirmed when exposed to negative stereotypes performed better on math tests than did females who did not self-affirm.”
Background
Stereotype threat prevents perceptual learning
Rydell, R. J., Shiffrin, R. M., Boucher, K. L., Loo, K. J. V., & Rydell, M. T. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1002815107 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“1 for the first six blocks and then introduced a self-affirmation manipulation (22) that in previous research has been shown to reduce the effects of ST (23).”
Gender difference does not mean genetic difference: Externalizing improves performance in mental rotation
Moè, A. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.11.001 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Manipulating power can affect memory conformity
Skagerberg, E. M., & Wright, D. B. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1353 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“This can result in the less powerful individual being disrupted which could lead to them performing worse on memory tasks as compared to powerful individuals ( Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, 2006 ).”
Background
When should I quit? Gender differences in exiting competitions
Hogarth, R. M., Karelaia, N., & Trujillo, C. A. (2011) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.06.021 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The Beneficial Effects of Social Identity Protection on the Performance Motivation of Members of Devalued Groups
Derks, B., Van Laar, C., & Ellemers, N. (2007) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2007.00008.x · Cited by 77 · see citing works

Address correspondence to:
Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., Schimel, J., & Martens, A. (2015)
Self-citation
Comparing the Efficacy of Two Forms of Self-Affirmation to Reduce Stereotype Threat Effects on Women’s Math Performance
Macchione, A. L., & Sacco, D. F. (2023) · Journal for STEM Education Research · doi:10.1007/s41979-023-00085-x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Stereotype Threat, Self-Affirmation, and Women's Statistics Performance
Tapia, B. (2014) · doi:10.31979/etd.fd5x-3fah
Comparing the Efficacy of Two Affirmation Interventions to Reduce Stereotype Threat Effects on Women’s Math Performance
Macchione, A. L. (2021) · Aquila Digital Community (University of Southern Mississippi)
Stereotype threat and self-affirmation : how self-affirmation protects the performance of stigmatized individuals
Thomas, C. L. (2018) · Cardinal Scholar (Ball State University)

Authors: Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., & Schimel, J.
Affiliations: University of Arizona (US)
University of Alberta (CA)
Corresponding author: Martens, Andy
ORCID: Johns, Michael
Greenberg, Jeff
Venue: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2006-03
Volume: 42
Issue: 2
Pages: 236-243
ISSN: 0022-1031 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010
OpenAlex: W2030568963
Cited by: 460
References: 36
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 35
FWCI: 24.29
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
UC Research Repository (University of Canterbury) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: stereotype threat, self-affirmation, gender stereotypes, mathematics achievement, spatial ability, diagnosticity, gender differences in performance

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