The DOI matches its Crossref record; 61 of the 61 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Pro-inflammatory activation of primary microglia and macrophages increases 18 kDa translocator protein expression in rodents but not humans
Open accessAbstract
The 18kDa Translocator Protein (TSPO) is the most commonly used tissue-specific marker of inflammation in positron emission tomography (PET) studies. It is expressed in myeloid cells such as microglia and macrophages, and in rodent myeloid cells expression increases with cellular activation. We assessed the effect of myeloid cell activation on TSPO gene expression in both primary human and rodent microglia and macrophages in vitro, and also measured TSPO radioligand binding with 3 H-PBR28 in primary human macrophages. As observed previously, we found that TSPO expression increases (∼9-fold) in rodent-derived macrophages and microglia upon pro-inflammatory stimulation. However, TSPO expression does not increase with classical pro-inflammatory activation in primary human microglia (fold change 0.85 [95% CI 0.58–1.12], p = 0.47). In contrast, pro-inflammatory activation of human monocyte-derived macrophages is associated with a reduction of both TSPO gene expression (fold change 0.60 [95% CI 0.45–0.74], p = 0.02) and TSPO binding site abundance (fold change 0.61 [95% CI 0.49–0.73], p < 0.0001). These findings have important implications for understanding the biology of TSPO in activated macrophages and microglia in humans. They are also clinically relevant for the interpretation of PET studies using TSPO targeting radioligands, as they suggest changes in TSPO expression may reflect microglial and macrophage density rather than activation phenotype.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Figures
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Recently, we have shown in vitro that, although TSPO gene and protein expression and TSPO radioligand binding increases in rodent microglia and macrophages with inflammatory stimulation, relative TSPO gene expression in human microglia and TSPO ligand binding in human monocyte-derived macrophages are reduced with pro-inflammatory activation (Owen et al., 2017).”
From A quantitative neuropathological assessment of translocator protein expression in multiple sclerosis (2019) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Recently, we have shown in vitro that, although TSPO gene and protein expression and TSPO radioligand binding increases in rodent microglia and macrophages with inflammatory stimulation, relative TSPO gene expression in human microglia and TSPO ligand binding in human monocyte-derived macrophages are reduced with pro-inflammatory activation (Owen et al., 2017).”
From A quantitative neuropathological assessment of translocator protein expression in multiple sclerosis (2019) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, in humans, TSPO is not upregulated in either pro-inflammatory macrophages (Narayan et al., 2017) or primary microglia (Owen et al., 2017).”
From A quantitative neuropathological assessment of translocator protein expression in multiple sclerosis (2019) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2017
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This new observation thus confirms in vitro data suggesting that the TSPO expression signal does not distinguish between microglial phenotypes in human tissue (Owen et al., 2017).”
From A quantitative neuropathological assessment of translocator protein expression in multiple sclerosis (2019) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2017
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Amyloid oligomers exacerbate tau pathology in a mouse model of tauopathy
Selenica, M.-L. B., Brownlow, M., Jimenez, J. P., Lee, D. C., Pena, G., Dickey, C. A., Gordon, M. N., & Morgan, D. (2013) · Neurodegenerative Diseases · doi:10.1159/000337230 · Cited by 10,359
Identification of a unique TGF-β–dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia
Butovsky, O., Jedrychowski, M. P., Moore, C. S., Cialic, R., Lanser, A. J., Gabriely, G., Koeglsperger, T., Dake, B., Wu, P. M., Doykan, C. E., et al. (2014) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3599 · Cited by 2,543 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, many of the markers with differential expression profiles in human microglia relative to human macrophages are not expressed by rodent myeloid cells.(37,38) Our findings add to these differences and suggest that extrapolating TSPO biology from rodent to human myeloid cells should be done with extreme caut…”
BackgroundSelf-citationMitochondrial reactive oxygen species trigger hypoxia-induced transcription
Chandel, N. S., Maltepe, E., Goldwasser, E., Mathieu, C. E., Simon, M. C., & Schumacker, P. T. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.20.11715 · Cited by 1,926
Microglial physiology: unique stimuli, specialized responses
Ransohoff, R. M., & Perry, V. H. (2009) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132528 · Cited by 1,858 · cited 3×
“Microglia also express receptors for neurotransmitters including g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, providing another pathway for microglial phenotypic regulation.(1,50,51) Caution should therefore be used when extrapolating these findings in vivo and further work will therefore examine directly how TSPO expres…”
BackgroundInnate immune activation in neurodegenerative disease
Heneka, M. T., Kummer, M. P., & Latz, E. (2014) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri3705 · Cited by 1,437 · cited 3×
“Dysregulated or inappropriate microglial activation is thought to contribute to many neurodegenerative diseases.(4) Modulating microglial phenotype has therefore been hypothesised as a potential therapeutic strategy for diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMicroglia in physiology and disease
Wolf, S. A., Boddeke, H. W. G. M., & Kettenmann, H. (2017) · Annual Review of Physiology · doi:10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034406 · Cited by 1,426 · cited 1×
“Rodent microglia are used extensively given the scarcity of primary human microglia; however, there are several important differences between the two cell types.(34,35) For example, in rodent but not human microglia, transforming growth Figure 2.”
In vivo imaging of microglial activation with [11C](R)-PK11195 PET in idiopathic Parkinson's disease
Gerhard, A., Pavese, N., Hotton, G., Turkheimer, F., Es, M., Hammers, A., Eggert, K., Oertel, W., Banati, R. B., & Brooks, D. J. (2006) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2005.08.002 · Cited by 1,200
Owen, D. R., Yeo, A. J., Gunn, R. N., Song, K., Wadsworth, G., Lewis, A., Rhodes, C., Pulford, D. J., Bennacef, I., Parker, C. A., et al. (2012) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2011.147 · Cited by 779
Self-citationThe peripheral benzodiazepine binding site in the brain in multiple sclerosis
Banati, R. B., Newcombe, J., Gunn, R. N., Cagnin, A., Turkheimer, F., Heppner, F., Price, G., Wegner, F., Giovannoni, G., Miller, D. H., et al. (2000) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/123.11.2321 · Cited by 661
High‐yield isolation of murine microglia by mild trypsinization
Saura, J., Tusell, J. M., & Serratosa, J. (2003) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.10274 · Cited by 592 · cited 1×
“At confluency, cultures were subjected to mild trypsinization as described.(32) Following removal of the astrocyte monolayer, microglia were re-plated at a density of 2 10(5) cells mL 1 in DMEMþ 10% FBS, 100 U mL 1 penicillin and 100 mg mL 1 streptomycin Owen et al.”
Method
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–194 of 194
Sandström, A., Torrado-Carvajal, Á., Morrissey, E. J., Kim, M., Alshelh, Z., Zhu, Y., Li, M., Chang, C. Y., Jarraya, M., Akeju, O., et al. (2023) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003114 · Cited by 18
Trigeminal nerve microstructure is linked with neuroinflammation and brainstem activity in migraine
Tohyama, S., Datko, M., Brusaferri, L., Kinder, L., Schnieders, J. H., Hyman, M., Goldstein, A. M., Gilbert, M. D., Housman, H., Le, V., et al. (2025) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awaf029 · Cited by 17
Dorion, M., Yaqubi, M., Murdoch, H. J., Hall, J. A., Dudley, R., Antel, J. P., Durcan, T. M., & Healy, L. M. (2023) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.24338 · Cited by 17
Self-citationDonegan, J. J., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2023) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7376-5_17 · Cited by 19
Iliopoulou, S. M., Tsartsalis, S., Kaiser, S., Millet, P., & Tournier, B. B. (2021) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s334027 · Cited by 17
“On the other hand, an in vitro study showed that TSPO expression did not increase in primary human microglia upon pro-inflammatory activation contrary to rodent microglia.(57) TSPO expression decreased during anti-inflammatory M2 microglial polarization in a mice model of brain hypoxia.”
BackgroundBlood–Brain Barrier Disruption and Imaging Assessment in Stroke
Liang, Y., Jiang, Y., Liu, J., Li, X., Cheng, X., Bao, L., Zhou, H.-W., & Guo, Z. (2024) · Translational Stroke Research · doi:10.1007/s12975-024-01300-6 · Cited by 19
“TSPO-PET is able to examine microglial activation in animal models and in clinical stroke, and TSPO expression has been associated with proinflammatory networks in rodents related, but in humans, TSPO is associated with microglia proliferation [85].”
Lopresti, B. J., Royse, S. K., Mathis, C. A., Tollefson, S., & Narendran, R. (2022) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15615 · Cited by 16
Time course of neuroinflammation after human stroke – a pilot study using co-registered PET and MRI
D’Anna, L., Searle, G. E., Harvey, K., Matthews, P. M., & Veltkamp, R. C. (2023) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-023-03178-7 · Cited by 15
Self-citationMeta-analytic studies of the glial cell marker TSPO in psychosis – a question of apples and pears?
Plavén‐Sigray, P., & Červenka, S. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171800421x · Cited by 17
“, 2017), and might even show decreased levels (Owen et al., 2017).”
BackgroundHou, Z., Wang, Q., Guo, Z., Wang, T., Wu, H., Ma, C., Wang, W., Su, F., Zhang, H., & Su, X. (2019) · Journal of drug targeting · doi:10.1080/1061186x.2019.1669040 · Cited by 15
“The translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) is a mitochondrial membrane protein that is up-regulated in activated macrophages [6,7].”
BackgroundQuantification of [11C]PBR28 data after systemic lipopolysaccharide challenge
Woodcock, E. A., Schain, M., Cosgrove, K., & Hillmer, A. T. (2020) · EJNMMI Research · doi:10.1186/s13550-020-0605-7 · Cited by 14
“Limitations of this work include our inability to confirm whether LPS activates microglia and/or astrocytes and recruits additional TSPO-expressing cells, or any combination of these or other properties [22].”
BackgroundImaging of microglia in post-stroke inflammation
Wang, Z., Song, Y., Bai, S., Xiang, W., Zhou, X., Han, L., Zhu, D., & Guan, Y. (2023) · Nuclear Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2023.108336 · Cited by 13
Vainio, S., Dickens, A. M., Matilainen, M., Lopez‐Picon, F. R., Aarnio, R., Eskola, O., Solin, O. H., Anthony, D. C., Rinne, J. O., Airas, L. M., et al. (2022) · EJNMMI Research · doi:10.1186/s13550-022-00878-y · Cited by 13
Nutma, E., Fancy, N. N., Marzin, M. C., Tsartsalis, S., Muirhead, R. C. J., Falk, I. N., de Bruin, J., Hollaus, D., Pieterman, R., Anink, J. J., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1420033/v1 · Cited by 12
Self-citationLuarte, A., Nardocci, G., Chakraborty, A., Bátiz, L. F., Pino‐Lagos, K., & Wyneken, Ú. (2023) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106833 · Cited by 12
Imaging the brain’s immune response to alcohol with [11C]PBR28 TSPO Positron Emission Tomography
Raval, N. R., Angarita, G. A., Matuskey, D., Miller, R., Drake, L. R., Kapinos, M., Nabulsi, N., Huang, Y. H., Carson, R. E., O’Malley, S. S., et al. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02198-6 · Cited by 12
“…based on evidence that acute increases in TSPO radiotracer binding correspond to increases in the numbers of TSPO-expressing cells (primarily microglia in the brain), while TSPO expression per cell did not change [51], consistent with results from human macrophages and post-mortem tissue [52, 53].”
ResultNutma, E., Fancy, N. N., Weinert, M., Marzin, M. C., Tsartsalis, S., Muirhead, R. C. J., Falk, I. N., de Bruin, J., Hollaus, D., Pieterman, R., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.05.11.491453 · Cited by 13
Self-citationAndrew, P. M., MacMahon, J. A., Bernardino, P. N., Tsai, Y., Hobson, B. A., Porter, V. A., Huddleston, S. L., Luo, A., Bruun, D. A., Saito, N. H., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-024-03272-8 · Cited by 13
Emborg, M. E., Metzger, J. M., D’Amour, K. A., Colwell, J. C., Neumann, L., Zhang, A., & Federoff, H. J. (2025) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2025.111297 · Cited by 11
“These 1 st and 2 nd generation ligands, respectively, bind to the mitochondrial translocator protein 18-kDa (TSPO), which is abundant in activated macrophages, microglia, and astroglia (Chen & Guilarte, 2008; Owen et al., 2017; Papadopoulos et al., 2006).”
Schroyen, G., Sleurs, C., Bartsoen, E., Smeets, D., Weehaeghe, D. V., Laere, K. V., Smeets, A., Deprez, S., & Sunaert, S. G. (2022) · The Breast · doi:10.1016/j.breast.2022.02.001 · Cited by 11
Nwaubani, P., Cercignani, M., & Colasanti, A. (2022) · Clinical and Experimental Immunology · doi:10.1093/cei/uxac058 · Cited by 10
“In normal conditions, TSPO is highly expressed in peripheral tissues, particularly where steroids are synthesized, consistent with its role in steroidogenesis [36].”
BackgroundMenevse, A. N., Ammer, L.-M., Vollmann‐Zwerenz, A., Kupczyk, M., Lorenz, J., Weidner, L., Hussein, A., Sax, J., Mühlbauer, J., Heuschneider, N., et al. (2023) · Acta Neuropathologica Communications · doi:10.1186/s40478-023-01550-9 · Cited by 14
“Immune-mediated regulation of TSPO expression in malignant cells has not been addressed so far, yet several groups reported contradicting results in mice and humans: IFNγ and LPS stimulation induced TSPO expression in rodent macrophages and microglia, whereas TSPO expression was strongly downregulated in primary human…”
Bader, S. M., Würfel, T., Jahner, T., Nothdurfter, C., Rupprecht, R., Milenkovic, V. M., & Wetzel, C. H. (2023) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells12060954 · Cited by 12
“Activation of cells did not induce increased TSPO expression in human microglia but did so in rodent microglia [47].”
BackgroundThe Heterogeneous Multiple Sclerosis Lesion: How Can We Assess and Modify a Degenerating Lesion?
Ellen, O., Ye, S., Nheu, D., Dass, M., Pagnin, M., Öztürk, E., Theotokis, P., Grigoriadis, N., & Petratos, S. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241311112 · Cited by 11
Barateau, L., Krache, A., Costa, A. D. S., Lecendreux, M., Debs, R., Chenini, S., Arlicot, N., Vourc’h, P., Evangelista, E., Alonso, M., et al. (2024) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000209326 · Cited by 10
“27 Accordingly, microglial activation may have di ff erent roles with diversity of microglial responses and complexity of balance between proin fl ammatory and neuroprotective microglial activation.”
Microglia and major depression: not yet a clear picture
Perry, V. H. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(18)30087-7 · Cited by 10
Verweij, S. L., Stiekema, L. C. A., Delewi, R., Zheng, K. H., Moens, S. J. B., Kroon, J., Stroes, C. I., Versloot, M., Piek, J. J., Verberne, H. J., et al. (2018) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-018-4038-8 · Cited by 10
“dominantly myeloid cell number [12], FDG reflects overall metabolic activity.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGermelli, L., Angeloni, E., Pozzo, E. D., Tremolanti, C., Felice, M. D., Giacomelli, C., Marchetti, L., Muscatello, B., Barresi, E., Taliani, S., et al. (2025) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-024-05544-1 · Cited by 10
Schifani, C., Hafizi, S., Silva, T. M. S., Watts, J. J., Khan, M. S., & Mizrahi, R. (2017) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09540261.2017.1396205 · Cited by 10
“Moreover, recent studies suggest that TSPO may be down-regulated in activated microglia (Owen et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPositron emission tomography to image cerebral neuroinflammation in ischaemic stroke: a pilot study
Visi, E., Hinz, R., Punter, M. N. M., Majid, A., Gerhard, A., & Herholz, K. (2020) · Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation · doi:10.3310/eme07010 · Cited by 9
Efficacy of retigabine in ameliorating the brain insult following sarin exposure in the rat
Gore, A., Neufeld-Cohen, A., Egoz, I., Baranes, S., Gez, R., Grauer, E., Chapman, S., & Lazar, S. (2020) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2020.114963 · Cited by 9
PET Imaging of Neuroinflammation
Chaney, A. M., Deal, E. M., Jackson, I. M., & James, M. L. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816386-3.00047-8 · Cited by 9
Imaging translocator protein expression with positron emission tomography
Wimberley, C., Buvat, I., & Boutin, H. (2021) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-021-05601-y · Cited by 9
“The cellular source of TSPO is highly dependent on species [1, 3, 4] and on the pathology or animal model.”
BackgroundPlavén‐Sigray, P., & Červenka, S. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719000746 · Cited by 9
Advanced Brain Imaging in Central Nervous System Demyelinating Diseases
Cagol, A., Tsagkas, C., & Granziera, C. (2024) · Neuroimaging Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.nic.2024.03.003 · Cited by 8
Llach, C.-D., Le, G. H., Shah, H., Marcato, L. M., Brietzke, E. M., Gill, H., Tabassum, A., Badulescu, S., Rosenblat, J. D., McIntyre, R. S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2025.578587 · Cited by 8
Poirier, S. E., Wagner, R., Liu, L., Ohorodnyk, P., Jurkiewicz, M. T., Thiel, A., Thiessen, J. D., Khaw, A. V., & Anazodo, U. (2025) · EJNMMI Research · doi:10.1186/s13550-025-01288-6 · Cited by 9
“A study by (Owen et al. 2017) did not observe an increase in TSPO signal following pro-inflammatory activation of human brain microglia and suggested that elevated TSPO signal could reflect microglial density rather than microglial activation [40].”
Joo, Y., Lee, M.-W., Son, Y., Chang, K., Yaqub, M. M., Kim, H.-K., Cumming, P. D., & Kim, J. (2021) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines10010034 · Cited by 11
“While the cellular localization of the TSPO signal is not always certain, the near consensus of PET results is consistent with microglial activation or monocyte recruitment in brain of MDD patients [5,17].”
Result18 kDa Translocator Protein TSPO Is a Mediator of Astrocyte Reactivity
Tournier, B. B., Bouteldja, F., Amossé, Q., Nicolaides, A., Azevedo, M. D., Tenenbaum, L., Garibotto, V., Ceyzériat, K., & Millet, P. (2023) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.3c03368 · Cited by 9
Varlow, C., Knight, A. C., Mcquade, P. S., & Vasdev, N. (2022) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcac019 · Cited by 9
Measuring Pathology in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Using Positron Emission Tomography
Brier, M. R., & Taha, F. (2023) · Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s11910-023-01285-z · Cited by 7
“Moreover, TSPO expression within human microglia does not increase with classical pro-inflammatory versus anti-inflammatory states [69, 70].”
BackgroundMicroglia in autism spectrum disorder: heterogeneity, immunometabolism, and synapse-related pathways
Lian, A., He, M., Zhang, H., & Yang, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1783755 · Cited by 7
“…glia-associated neuroimmune signals in living individuals with ASD, but interpretation is complex because TSPO is not microglia speci fi c and because ligand binding, mitochondrial biology, genotype, psychiatric subgroup structure, and kinetic modeling all in fl uence the signal (16) (17, 18).”
Zatcepin, A., Heindl, S., Schillinger, U., Kaiser, L., Lindner, S., Bartenstein, P., Kopczak, A., Liesz, A., Brendel, M., & Ziegler, S. I. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.830020 · Cited by 6
“Microglia activation is strongly correlated to the 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO) expression level on the outer membrane of microglial mitochondria (5).”
BackgroundBlum, N., Mirian, C., Maier, A. D., Mathiesen, T. I., Vilhardt, F., & Haslund-Vinding, J. L. (2023) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1093/jnen/nlad093 · Cited by 6
Microglial Positron Emission Tomography Imaging In Vivo
Ottoy, J., Picker, L. D., & Kang, M. S. (2024) · Advances in neurobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55529-9_32 · Cited by 6
Nanostructured Modulators of Neuroglia
Maysinger, D., & Ji, J. X. (2019) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612825666190912163339 · Cited by 6
Impact of NBP on acute ischemic stroke: Tracking therapy effect on neuroinflammation
Wang, Z., Bai, S., Song, Y., Xiang, W., Shao, H., Han, L., Zhu, D., Liu, J., & Guan, Y. (2024) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2024.113217 · Cited by 5
Machado, L. S., Vidor, P. R., Perquim, L., Limberger, C., Machado, L., da Rocha, A. S., Soares, C., Rahmouni, N., Brum, W. S., Bellaver, B., et al. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03160-4 · Cited by 5
“Indeed, it has been shown that changes in microglial phenotypes can trigger astrocyte reactivity [101].”
Neuroinflammation and Microglial Activation in Schizophrenia: An Overview
Shebl, N. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-3949-5_5-1 · Cited by 5
Characteristics of TSPO expression in marmoset EAE
Falk, I., Maric, D., Leibovitch, E., Sati, P., Lefeuvre, J., Luciano, N. J., Guy, J., Ha, S.-K., Owen, D. R., Aigbirhio, F., et al. (2025) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-025-03343-4 · Cited by 5
“Each Iba1 + cell body was also then scanned for expression of early activation marker MRP14 [48], MHC-II molecule HLA-DR [20, 46], phagocytic receptor CD163 [50, 51], and Arg1, which is associated with immuno-suppression [49].”
Self-citationTSPO PET Imaging as a Biomarker of Neuroinflammation in Neurodegenerative Disorders
Werry, E. L., Bright, F., & Kassiou, M. (2021) · Neuromethods · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-1712-0_17 · Cited by 5
Moreno, O., Fernández, I., Plaza‐García, S., Padró, D., Baz, Z., Ramos‐Cabrer, P., Martín, A., & Llop, J. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.121753 · Cited by 5
Diagnostic utility of plasma translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) in sepsis: A case–control study
Hattori, M., Kikutani, K., Hosokawa, K., Kyo, M., Nishikimi, M., Ota, K., Ohshimo, S., Aizawa, H., & Shime, N. (2024) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000040396 · Cited by 4
Tollefson, S., Himes, M. L., Kozinski, K. M., Lopresti, B. J., Mason, N. S., Hibbeln, J. R., Muldoon, M. F., & Narendran, R. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.09.005 · Cited by 4
Yan, X., Siméon, F. G., Liow, J., Morse, C. L., Jana, S., Santamaria, J. A. M., Jenkins, M. D., Zoghbi, S. S., Pike, V. W., Innis, R. B., et al. (2024) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1177/0271678x241304924 · Cited by 3
Neurosteroids and Translocator Protein (TSPO) in neuroinflammation
Angeloni, E., Germelli, L., Costa, B., Martini, C., & Pozzo, E. D. (2024) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105916 · Cited by 5
Refining seizure foci localization: the potential of TSPO-PET
Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Xu, S., & Wu, X. (2025) · Acta Epileptologica · doi:10.1186/s42494-025-00234-2 · Cited by 3
“Thus, inflammation-induced activation of human microglia does not lead to increased TSPO expression [63, 64] (Fig.”
Imaging Neuroimmune Dysfunction: From TSPO to Emerging Positron Emission Tomography Targets
Bonomi, R. E., Raval, N. R., Hillmer, A. T., & Cosgrove, K. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.11.010 · Cited by 3
A Macrophage-Specific PET Tracer for Grading Acute Liver Injury
Zhang, X., Wang, G., Wang, T., Li, J., Liu, N., & Su, X. (2026) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5c03042 · Cited by 2
Nussbaumer, M., Guest, P. C., Schiltz, K., Dudeck, L., Asl, L. S., Meyer-Lotz, G., Dobrowolny, H., Leucht, S., Bernstein, H., Nickl‐Jockschat, T., et al. (2026) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-026-03614-3 · Cited by 3
“Elevated binding may also re fl ect myeloid proliferation or peripheral monocyte recruitment, adding interpretive uncertainty [152, 153].”
Deniel, G., Dhelft, F., Lancelot, S., Orkisz, M., Roux, E., Mouton, W., Benzerdjeb, N., Richard, J., & Bitker, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1338602 · Cited by 2
Emborg, M. E., Gambardella, J. C., Zhang, A., & Federoff, H. J. (2024) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-90120-8.00010-1 · Cited by 2
Neural biomarkers of suicidal behavior: from cognition and circuits to cells (and back)
Jollant, F., & Mechawar, N. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821398-8.00007-2 · Cited by 2
Microglia and Psychiatric Disorders
Couch, A. C. M., & Vernon, A. C. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71229-7_8 · Cited by 2
Dorion, M., Yaqubi, M., Murdoch, H. J., Hall, J. A., Dudley, R., Antel, J. P., Durcan, T. M., & Healy, L. M. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.07.14.500101 · Cited by 2
“Differences not only relate to their transcriptome, but also in the way cells react to insults, such as morphological alterations and nitric oxide synthesis in response to interferon/LPS treatment (Geirsdottir et al., 2019; Gosselin et al., 2017; Healy, Yaqubi, Ludwin, & Antel, 2019; Owen et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNeuroimaging Modalities in Neuroimmunology
Rukmangadachar, L. A., & Azevedo, C. J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61883-4_3 · Cited by 1
Doorduin, J. (2025) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-19104-6.00016-4 · Cited by 1
Fu, Y., Lian, J., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., Xu, Z., Fan, H., Zhu, Y., Liang, Y., Sun, L., & Zhang, R. (2026) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-026-05692-4 · Cited by 1
“For example, Owen et al. (2017) demonstrated that, in a murine model, LPS stimulation significantly upregulated TSPO expression in hippocampal microglia [29].”
Peripheral biomarkers of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia
Ouyang, X., Chia, R. S. L., Chai, Y. L., Chong, Sim, M. A., Jo, D., Arumugam, T. V., Sethi, G., Dawe, G. S., Chen, C. P., et al. (2026) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2026.118077 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Systemic Inflammation on Cognitive Function and Neurodegenerative Disease
Cunningham, C. M., & Skelly, D. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108539623.010 · Cited by 1
Neuroinflammation and Microglial Activation in Schizophrenia: An Overview
Shebl, N. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-7557-0_5 · Cited by 1
Adventures in Translocation: Studies of the Translocator Protein (TSPO) 18 kDa*
Danon, J. J., Tregeagle, D. F. L., & Kassiou, M. (2021) · Australian Journal of Chemistry · doi:10.1071/ch21176 · Cited by 1
Červenka, S., & Farde, L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35206-6_8 · Cited by 1
Astroglial Pathology in Major Depressive Disorders: Metabolic and Molecular Aspects
Sarawagi, A., Bhat, U. A., Sinha, S., Iyer, H., Patel, A. B., & Kumar, A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-8313-8_11 · Cited by 1
de Natale, E. R., Wilson, H., Udeh‐Momoh, C. T., Ford, J. K., Politis, M., & Middleton, L. T. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-823761-8.00022-7 · Cited by 1
MerTK mediates the immunologically silent uptake of alpha-synuclein fibrils by human microgliaPreprint
Dorion, M., Senkevich, K. A., Yaqubi, M., Kieran, N. W., Chen, C. X. ‐., MacDonald, A., Luo, W., Wallis, A., Shlaifer, I., Hall, J. A., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.03.04.531108 · Cited by 1
Self-citationTSPO Imaging in Psychiatric Disorders
Červenka, S., & Mizrahi, R. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57231-0_18
Translocator protein (18 kDa TSPO) binding in depression
Kéri, S. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817935-2.00030-1
Etifoxine inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activity in human and murine myeloid cellsPreprint
Osmond, J. M., Williams, J. B., Matthews, P. M., Owen, D. R., & Moore, C. S. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.19.558428
Self-citationWalz, W. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48105-5_17
Extra-axial inflammatory signal and its relation to peripheral and central immunity in depressionPreprint
Eiff, B., Bullmore, E. T., Clatworthy, M. R., Fryer, T. D., Pariante, C. M., Mondelli, V., Maccioni, L., Hadjikhani, N. K., Loggia, M. L., Moskowitz, M. A., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.03.15.24304342
Alagaratnam, J., Thornhill, J. P., Fan, Z., Vera, J. H., Underwood, J., Hall, R., Searle, G. E., Owen, D. R., Edison, P., Fidler, S. J., et al. (2024) · Journal of NeuroVirology · doi:10.1007/s13365-024-01200-3
“…nervous system but emerging data suggests that reactive astrocytes may also have a contributory role to TSPO expression signals (Lavisse et al. 2012) and it is becoming increasingly recognised that [ 11 C] PBR28 binding can represent pro-, anti-and mixed inflammatory phenotypes (Owen et al. 2017).”
Self-citationPost-Mortem validation of in vivo 18kDa Translocator Protein (TSPO) PET as a microglial biomarkerPreprint
Wijesinghe, S. S., Rowe, J. B., Mason, H. D., Allinson, K. S. J., Thomas, R., Vontobel, D. S., Fryer, T. D., Hong, Y. T., Bacioglu, M., Spillantini, M. G., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.07.15.24309178
“For example, TSPO expression does not always increase in response to inflammatory or neurotoxic stimuli 24,25 , and in AD and multiple sclerosis post-mortem tissue studies, increased TSPO expression has been observed in endothelium and astrocytes 26,27 .”
BackgroundMelanocortin Receptor-Mediated Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Acthar® Gel in Human Myeloid Cells
Hayes, K., & Wright, D. (2025) · NeuroImmunoModulation · doi:10.1159/000547302
“This protocol has been reported to yield ≥ 90% microglia purity via CD11c staining by flow cytometry [21].”
Nieuwland, J. M., Nutma, E., Philippens, I. H. C. H. M., Böszörményi, K. P., Remarque, E. J., Bakker, J., Meijer, L., Woerdman, N., Fagrouch, Z. C., Verstrepen, B. E., et al. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23804883
Menevse, A. N., Ammer, L.-M., Vollmann-Zwerenz, A., Kupczyk, M., Lorenz, J., Weidner, L., Hussein, A., Sax, J., Mühlbauer, J., Heuschneider, N., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26587764
Menevse, A. N., Ammer, L.-M., Vollmann-Zwerenz, A., Kupczyk, M., Lorenz, J., Weidner, L., Hussein, A., Sax, J., Mühlbauer, J., Heuschneider, N., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26587767
Vainio, S. K., Dickens, A. M., Matilainen, M., Lopez‐Picon, F. R., Aarnio, R., Eskola, O., Solin, O. H., Anthony, D. C., Rinne, J. O., Airas, L., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19112641
D’Anna, L., Searle, G. E., Harvey, K., Matthews, P., & Veltkamp, R. C. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.22877434
Self-citationBranco, D. F., Kwoh, C. K., Patzer, T. S., Loggia, M. L., Guermazi, A., & Jarraya, M. (2026) · Skeletal Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00256-026-05204-4
“Using positron emission tomography (PET) and radioligands such as [ 11 C]PBR28, TSPO can be imaged in-vivo, and elevations in TSPO signal during (neuro)inflammatory processes were shown to be proportional to glial/immune cell density [100–102].”
[18F]DPA-714 PET in presurgical evaluation of drug-resistant epilepsy: from clinical to pathology
Wang, W., Wang, Y., Wang, X., Zhong, M., Xu, C., Cui, B., Yueshan, P. I. A. O., Lin, Y., & Wang, Y. (2026) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-026-04862-0
“This paradigm helps reconcile seemingly conflicting data [28] and implies that the TSPO PET signal in epilepsy captures a critical nexus of neuroimmune and metabolic dysfunction driving seizure pathogenesis.”
Rao, X., Yang, H., Chen, Y., Zhao, A., Cheng, T., Li, L., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Li, Z. (2026) · Odontology · doi:10.1007/s10266-026-01487-0
Torrado-Carvajal, Á., & Loggia, M. L. (2026) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1002/ejp.70324
“Instead of being a marker of a specific activation phenotype or cellular state, TSPO is now understood to serve more as a marker of glial cell density (Nutma et al. 2021; Owen et al. 2017; Wijesinghe et al. 2025).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Owen, D. R., Narayan, N., Wells, L., Healy, L., Smyth, E., Rabiner, E. A., Galloway, D., Williams, J. B., Lehr, J., Mandhair, H., Peferoen, L. A., Taylor, P. C., Amor, S., Antel, J. P., Matthews, P. M., & Moore, C. S.
- Affiliations
- Hammersmith Hospital (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital (CA)
- King's College London (GB)
- Memorial University of Newfoundland (CA)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Queen Mary University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Owen, David R
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2017-05-22
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2679-2690
- ISSN
- 0271-678X (ISSN-L)
- 1559-7016
- PMC
- PMC5536262
- OpenAlex
- W2619298813
- Cited by
- 194
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 10.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0514-10022)
- Multiple Sclerosis Society
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Medical Research Council (MR/N008219/1, MR/N026934/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmacological Receptor Mechanisms and Effects
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Medical Imaging Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- TSPO, microglia, macrophages, pro-inflammatory activation, myeloid cell activation, monocyte-derived macrophages
- MeSH terms
- Acetamides, Adult, Animals, Brain, Cells, Cultured, Humans, Interferon-gamma, Lipopolysaccharides, Macrophages, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Middle Aged, Protein Binding, Pyridines, Species Specificity, Gene Expression, Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor, Microglia, Receptors, GABA, Myeloid Cells, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
