Citizen Satisfaction with Police Encounters

“…contacts such as arrest, in turn, were found to be associated with more negative attitudes toward the police (Cao, Frank, and Cullen 1996; Li, Ren, and Luo 2016; Reisig and Correia 1997; Schafer, Huebner, and Bynum 2003; Skogan 2005; Tyler, Fagan, and Geller 2014; Weitzer and Tuch 2005).”

“As a starting point, the police should provide citizens adequate opportunities to explain and express their opinions, treat citizens with respect and dignity, and maintain consistency and neutrality in police decision-making ( Skogan, 2005”

“…ticket) are more likely to yield negative perceptions, whereas citizen-initiated calls for service are more likely to produce positive perceptions (Bartsch & Cheurprakobkit, 2004; Nofziger & Williams, 2005; Ren et al., 2005; Skogan, 2005; Webb & Marshall, 1995; Weitzer & Tuch, 2004b, 2005a).”

“…il ed ). think they live in areas with lower crime rates where they feel safe are found to express more positive attitudes towards the police than do those who live in areas where there are higher crime rates where they do not feel safe (Cheng, 2015; Hwang, McGarrell, & Benson, 2005; Skogan, 2005).”

“…much of the research that has been conducted on this topic focuses on ethnicity rather than on immigrant status (Davis & Hendricks, 2007), such that the bulk of what we know about immigrants’ confidence in police is focused on Latinos (Carter, 1983; Correia, 2010; Culver, 2004; Skogan, 2005).”

“These variables have been found in past research to influence public perceptions of police (e.g., Skogan, 2005; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005).”

“It was not possible in this analysis to 18 See for example Ipsos MORI (2007).”

“On the one hand, scholars argue that Latinx immigrants who have English language barriers with police are more distrustful of law enforcement (Menjívar and Bejarano 2004; Skogan 2005).”

“Research suggests, however, that negative encounters are significantly more impactful than positive encounters (Skogan, 2005, 2007).”

“…between different cases of citizen-initiated contact: In cases in which the citizen contacts the police in order to get or offer information related to noncriminal matters, satisfaction with the police is higher than in cases of reporting disturbance or offense to the police (Skogan, 2005, p. 300).”

“Similarly, researchers have concluded that resident s who believe neighborhood crime rates are high had negative police evaluations ([25]).”

“The type of contact involved, whether citizen or police initiated (e.g., voluntary or nonvoluntary), also makes a difference (Skogan, 2005).”

“They examine individuals’ perceptions of fairness in their contacts with the police based on their assessments of whether the officer exercised his/her authority in ways that were procedurally just, or unbiased, respectful, and caring (e.g. McCluskey et al., 1999; Reisig et al., 2007; Reisig and Chandek, 2001; Skogan,…”

“Consistent with tenets of procedural justice which imply that people distinguish between outcomes and processes and tend to be satisfied with officers even when outcomes are negative when officers explain their actions to them (Skogan, 2005).”

“of work that has found similar results among racial/ethnic minority groups (Nadal et al., 2017; Skogan, 2005; Tyler, 2005; Weitzer & Tuch, 2004), among individuals who are U.”

“…Skogan, 2005; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003; Zahnow et al., 2017).12 In addition, we controlled for the number and nature of respondents’ recent contacts with police, which may both reflect and shape their views of police (Brown & Benedict, 2002; Maxson et al., 2003; Skogan, 2005; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003).”

“For instance, in the United States, African Americans are more likely than Whites to experience insulting language, random searches, and even aggressive behaviour during their interactions with the police (Kahn, Lee, Renauer, Henning, & Stewart, 2016; Skogan, 2005).”

“Moreover, a police department’s responsiveness can not only make residents more satisfied with policing services, responsiveness can also increase the legitimacy that residents feel for the police (Skogan, 2005; Tyler, 2002), increase cooperation with the police (Tyler & Fagan, 2008), and make residents more inclined…”

“The extant literature reveals that Latinos and African Americans share negative images of the police and social scripts of what police do, but how do officers experience low-income minority neighborhoods and their residents? Aside from police surveys and official data, which capture general attitudes toward the commun…”

“…of police performance during an encounter (Scaglion and Condon 1980, Correia et al. 1996, Huang and Vaughn 1996) and the treatment they specifically received from officers (Reisig and Parks 2000, Frank et al. 2005, Skogan 2005) have been found to influence overall perceptions of the police.”

“This is particularly important in forced involuntary contacts where 1 3 police can be perceived as more adversarial and threatening (Skogan, 2005).”

“Furthermore, the importance of procedural justice has been found to differ for types of police encounters – more specifically, whether the police contact was self-initiated or initiated by the police (Skogan, 2005; Tyler & Folger, 1980).”

“…toward the police, while negative contact and negative media have the opposite effect (Brown & Benedict, 2002; Li et al., 2016; Luo et al., 2017; Skogan, 2005), it is further suggested that law enforcement agencies make a concerted effort to connect with college students by means of practices…”

“Although this study examines the judgments of a specific group of people— those arrested by the police—the results presented confirm what others have found using general population samples: the actions taken by police within the context of interpersonal encounters with members of the public exert significant influence…”

“…characteristics (e.g., Hagan & Albonetti, 1982; Sampson & Bartusch, 1998; Theobald & Haider-Markel, 2009), previous experiences with the police (Skogan, 2005; Weitzer & Tuch, 2006; Wiley & Esbensen, 2016), and perceptions that a police department accurately represents the community (Skogan &…”

“, 1996; Sampson & Bartusch, 1998), and prior experiences with police (Skogan, 2005; Worrall, 1999).”

“The evaluation of law enforcement officials based on ‘‘experience with police model’’ argues that satisfaction with police is mainly a result of prior contact experience (Madan and Nalla, 2015; Reisig and Parks, 2003; Skogan, 2005; Tyler, 2006; Weitzer and Tuch, 2005; Wells, 2007).”

“…race and ethnicity are important in determining people’s satisfaction and confidence with the police, with ethnic minorities having the lowest rating of satisfaction and generally holding unfavourable attitudes towards the police (Brown & Reed Benedict, 2002; Skogan, 2005; Webb & Marshall, 1995).”

“Police-Initiated vs. Citizen-Initiated Contacts Research suggests that the reason for a given police–citizen encounter influences the resident’s assessment of the quality of his or her experience (Brandl, Frank, Worden, & Bynum, 1994; Dean, 1980; Decker, 1981; Scaglion & Condon, 1980; Skogan, 2005).”

“Respondents’ sex was measured using a dummy variable for Female (e.g., Reisig and Correia 1997; Skogan 2005).”

“Whites consistently display greater trust and confidence in the police relative to minorities (Skogan, 2005; Tyler, 2005), so leaving Whites out allowed for a comparison between Whites and the different minority groups.”

“Skogan (2005), however, does not include a measure for immigration status.”

“Importantly, several studies have found that perceptual measures are not tightly coupled to behavioral markers of speci fi c protocols such as of fi cers identifying themselves to residents (Skogan 2005; Fratello, Rengifo, and Trone 2013; Worden and McLean 2017; Nagin and Telep 2017).”

“While much of this research is centered on developed economies of North America (Reisig & Parks, 2000; Skogan, 2005; Zhao, Thurman & He, 1999) and Europe (Robinson & Stroshine, 2005; Sheley & Nock, 1979; Southgate & Crisp, 1992), there has been considerable attention placed on public satisfaction…”

“Several studies have shown that local crime per se could have a strong impact on the public ’ s perception of the police whereby people who perceive their environment as unsafe tend to be less satis fi ed with the police than those who perceive their environment as safe 19 – 22 .”

“Scholars also argue that continuous police deployment in “hot spots” (commonly associated with poor, minority, and high-crime areas) may further substantiate some of the racial stereotypes associated with race and criminality [8].”

“Such findings support the argument that the most effective way of building legitimacy is for the police to treat people with respect, listen to what they have to say, and make fair decisions (Skogan, 2005; Jackson et al., 2012b).”

“Closeness between the public and the police is, in fundamental respects, beneficial and buttresses ‘community policing’ (Skogan, 2005).”

“Language barriers often pose an obstacle to clear communications between police and immigrants, and thus influence immigrant perceptions of law enforcement (Skogan, 2005).”

“This finding echoes the results of past research showing that the type and content of police–citizen contacts matter in shaping public assessments of the police (Dean, 1980; Frank, Smith, & Novak, 2005; Reisig & Parks, 2000; Skogan, 2005).”

“It is similarly clear that citizen perceptions of police are determined by the quality of interactions between the groups (Skogan, 2005; Tyler, 2005).”

“Evidence suggests that all English-speaking racial groups initiate contact with the police at roughly similar rates (Skogan, 2005), but that blacks and Latinos are stopped by police at rates exceeding those of whites (Fagan & Davies, 2000; Fagan, Geller, Davies, & West, 2010; Geller & Fagan, 2010;…”

“Policy Implications The implications of our research, and that conducted by Patton et al. (2017) and others (Baseheart & Cox, 1993; Johnson, 2004; Reisig & Chandek, 2001; Shelley et al., 2013; Skogan, 2005; Woodhull, 1995), are clear.”

“In particular, several studies have demonstrated that police-initiated contact has been rated less favourably, compared with citizen- initiated contact (Skogan, 2005; Page 39 see Rosenbaum et al., 2005, for exception).”

“(yes = 1).2 Existing literature commonly uses public perceptions of police fairness during any type of contact as a measurement of procedural justice (see Buckler et al., 2007; Skogan, 2005; Tyler & Huo, 2002, among others).”

“rather than adversarial or confrontational role (Decker, 1981; Skogan, 2005).”

“Voluntary contact (i.e. citizen-initiated contact) tends to have a positive effect, whereas police-initiated contact tends to have a negative effect (Brick et al., 2009; Schuck, 2013; Skogan, 2005).”

“Notably, police-initiated transactions usually affect citizens’ attitudes toward the police (Avdija, 2010; Skogan, 2005; Tankebe, 2010).”

“The second dependent variable is police effectiveness gauged by 10 items that share the common trait of a specified geographic location (e.g., Brandl, Frank, Worden, & Bynum, 1994; Frank et al., 2005; Skogan, 2005).”

“A plethora of studies revealed that ethnicity is one of the most critical determinants of confidence in the police and ethnic minorities report less trust than their counterparts from White ethnicity group (Skogan, 2005; Waddington & Braddock, 1991; Wu, 2014; Wu et al., 2009).”

“…satisfactory contact with the police improves the perception of the police (Chow, 2011; Hinds, 2007; Ren et al., 2005; Schafer et al., 2003; Skogan, 2005, 2006), respondents who were not agreeable (maybe due to police mistreatment or harassment) were found to be less satisfied with the…”

“…higher levels of a belief in a police-military equivalency than minority students, a finding consistent with past research that has found that White respondents are more likely to have more positive perceptions of the police than minorities (e.g., Brunson 2007; Carter 1985; Skogan 2005).”

“One potential challenge is immigration, which can bring about visible demographic changes that impact policing (Mercer, 1995; Skogan, 2005).”

“For both citizeninitiated and police-initiated contact, perceptions of police behavior during a contact situation are the greatest predictors of civilian satisfaction with the encounter (Skogan, 2005).”

“That negative police-citizen contacts affect judgments about the police has also been confirmed by other studies (Brown and Reed Benedict 2002, Skogan 2005, Kääriäinen 2007, Wells 2007), however, seems to have received less attention in studies into private security and CCTV trust.”