An Officer-Level Examination of the Prevalence and Correlates of Police Body-Worn Camera Activation

Huff, Jessica; White, Michael D.; Malm, Aili E.; Katz, Charles M.

doi:10.1177/10986111241241751

Cited by 7Policing Practices and PerceptionsOccupational Health and Safety ResearchTraumatic Ocular and Foreign Body Injuries

An Officer-Level Examination of the Prevalence and Correlates of Police Body-Worn Camera Activation

Open access

Huff, Jessica, White, Michael D., Malm, Aili E., Katz, Charles M.·2025·Police Quarterly

DOI 10.1177/10986111241241751

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Abstract

Body-worn cameras (BWCs) are intended to promote transparency and accountability. However, officer failure to activate BWCs remains a concern. Research has identified types of incidents associated with activation failure, but has not examined activation as a measure of performance. We examine BWC activation as an officer-level decision-making process, assessing the influence of demographics, assignments, and performance (e.g., proactivity) on activation rates over time. Negative binominal and multinomial logistic regression were used to analyze data from 149 officers assigned to wear BWCs during a randomized-controlled trial. Activation rates ranged from 0–88% of calls-for-service. Group-based trajectory modeling identified three activation trends: decreased, increased then decreased, and increased and tapered off. Limited relationships between officer-level predictors and activation were identified. Findings suggest officer characteristics and performance are not primary drivers of BWC activation. Departments should use supervision, retraining, and policy intervention to ensure BWCs are implemented as intended.

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Crossref · 10.1177/10986111241241751

Cites

52 of 52 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

2 of 60 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

Premisecitation
An officer's failure to activate a BWC can undermine all the benefits generated by BWCs.
“An officer's failure to activate can undermine all the benefits generated by BWCs (Martain et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
- cites Martain et al., 2021 source
  The Discussion and conclusion (p. 12) says chronic or low activation compliance can fundamentally undermine an agency’s BWC program, and the passage labelled Keywords (p. 2) says activation failure diluted program effectiveness. These passages support the risk of undermining BWC benefits, but do not establish that an officer’s failure to activate can undermine *all* benefits. (LLM, conf=0.84)
  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Findingown data
Among the 149 Phoenix officers studied, BWC activation rates ranged from 0% to 88% of calls-for-service.
“Activation rates ranged from 0-88% of calls-for-service.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Unlinked BWC activations were likely accidental or occurred outside the context of a police-citizen contact.
- Rests on an assumption: The remaining linked BWC activation records accurately represent BWC activation during calls-for-service.
Findingown data
Group-based trajectory modeling identified three officer activation trends: decreased, increased then decreased, and increased and tapered off.
“Group-based trajectory modeling identified three activation trends: decreased, increased then decreased, and increased and tapered off.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: The remaining linked BWC activation records accurately represent BWC activation during calls-for-service.
Findingown data
Only limited relationships between officer-level predictors and BWC activation were identified.
“Limited relationships between officer-level predictors and activation were identified.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: The remaining linked BWC activation records accurately represent BWC activation during calls-for-service.
- Rests on an assumption: Administrative counts of self-initiated contacts, arrests, complaints, and use of force validly measure officer performance.
Findingown data
Officers had a 66.6% probability, on average, of belonging to the increased then tapered off trajectory group.
“This trajectory is referred to as”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

Findingreasoning
BWC activation increased markedly starting around the eighth time period.
“BWC activation increased markedly starting around the eighth time period.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
The average probability of falling into the increased then decreased trajectory is 24.0%.
“The average probability of falling into this”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
All three BWC activation trajectories start with activation levels between approximately 30% and 45% of encounters.
“As shown in Figure 2, all three trajectories start with activation levels between ∼30-45% of encounters.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
A three-trajectory solution allowing for one quadratic trajectory and two cubic trajectories was identified as the best fit for the data.
“A three-trajectory solution allowing for one quadratic trajectory and two cubic trajectories was identified as the best fit for the data.4”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
At the bivariate level, a significant positive correlation exists between an officer's number of BWC activations and their number of self-initiated contacts (r = 0.37; p < .05).
“A significant positive correlation exists between an officer's number of BWC activations and their number of self-initiated contacts (r = 0.37; p < .05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
The average probability of falling into the decreased trajectory is 9.4% for all 149 officers.
“The average probability of falling into the decreased trajectory is 9.4% for all 149 officers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
Models 2 and 3 do not reveal significant relationships between officer job-related factors or other officer behavioral measures and activation rates.
“Models 2 and 3 do not reveal significant relationships between officer job-related factors or other officer behavioral measures on activation rates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
The number of BWC activations across officers was not normally distributed.
“the number of BWC activations across officers was not normally distributed”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The 4th trajectory largely follows the same pattern as one of the initial trajectories identified.
“the visual plots demonstrate that the 4th trajectory largely follows the same pattern as one of the initial trajectories identified”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The number of BWC activations had a large variance, an early indicator of potential overdispersion.
“the number of BWC activations had a large variance, an early indicator of potential overdispersion.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The bivariate correlations are collectively small in magnitude (all correlations < 0.5).
“These bivariate correlations are collectively small in magnitude (all correlations<0.5).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
In Model 4, officers assigned to swing shift have a 74.8% lower risk of belonging to the increase then decrease group (RRR = 0.25; p < .05) compared to the increase and tapered off group.
“Officers assigned to swing shift have a 74.8% lower risk of belonging to the increase then decrease group (RRR = 0.25; p < .05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
At the bivariate level, a significant positive correlation exists between an officer's number of BWC activations and their number of arrests (r = 0.31; p < .05).
“number of arrests (r = 0.31; p < .05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingnone given
Activation rate as a performance measure did not align with other traditional behavior measures, such as proactivity, arrests, complaints, and use of force.
“Moreover, activation rate as a performance measure did not align with other traditional behavior measures, such as proactivity, arrests, complaints, and use of force.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
In Model 1, male officers activate their BWCs at a 1.53 times higher rate than female officers (IRR = 1.53; p < .01).
“As shown in Model 1, the only significant demographic characteristic suggests that male officers activate their BWCs at a 1.53 times higher rate than females (IRR = 1.53; p < .01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
Number of BWC activations was positively correlated with number of self-initiated contacts (r = .369, p < .05).
“1 | 1.000 | 0.133 | 0.013 | 0.157 | À0.157 | À0.067 | 0.031 | 0.369* | 0.313* | 0.166* | À0.045 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Number of BWC activations was positively correlated with number of complaints (r = .166, p < .05).
“1 | 1.000 | 0.133 | 0.013 | 0.157 | À0.157 | À0.067 | 0.031 | 0.369* | 0.313* | 0.166* | À0.045 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In negative binomial regression Model 1, male officer status was associated with higher BWC activation (b = 0.426, IRR = 1.531, p < .05).
“0.426* 1.531* 0.344 1.410”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In Model 4, officers assigned to night shift have a 77.6% lower relative risk (RRR = 0.22; p < .05) of belonging to the increase then decrease group, compared to the increase and tapered off group.
“those assigned to night shift have a 77.6% lower relative risk (RRR = 0.22; p < .05) of belonging to the increase then decrease group, compared to the increase and tapered off group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
In the full model including all predictors, the significant effect of gender becomes non-significant.
“Finally, in the full model including all predictors, the significant effect of gender becomes non-significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
Histograms of both the number of BWC activations and the percentage of calls-for-service resulting in activation exhibit skew that would violate the assumptions of a linear model.
“Histograms of both variables exhibit skew that would violate the assumptions of a linear model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Number of BWC activations was positively correlated with number of arrests (r = .313, p < .05).
“1 | 1.000 | 0.133 | 0.013 | 0.157 | À0.157 | À0.067 | 0.031 | 0.369* | 0.313* | 0.166* | À0.045 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In Model 3, officers who receive more complaints have a significantly increased relative risk of belonging to the increase then decrease trajectory than to the increase and tapered off trajectory (RRR = 2.04; p < .05).
“The only significant result suggests that officers who receive more complaints have a significantly increased relative risk of belonging to the increase then decrease trajectory than to the increase and tapered off trajectory (RRR = 2.04; p < .05).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
Significant relationships that emerged in the bivariate correlations, such as between proactivity, arrests, and BWC activations, were no longer statistically significant in the multivariate models that include an exposure term for an officer's number of calls-for-service.
“Further, significant relationships that emerged in the bivariate correlations (e.g., between proactivity, arrests, and BWC activations) were no longer statistically significant in the multivariate models that include an exposure term for an officers' number of calls-for-service.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Findingown data
Even the 66.6% of officers who increased their activation levels in response to policy change and remained relatively high compliers tapered off a bit toward the end of the study.
“Second, even the 66.6% of officers who increased their activation levels in response to policy change and remained relatively high compliers tapered off a bit toward the end of the study.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
At the bivariate level, a significant positive correlation exists between an officer's number of BWC activations and their number of complaints (r = 0.17; p < .05).
“number of complaints (r = 0.17; p < .05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Interpretationown data
Officer characteristics and performance are not primary drivers of BWC activation.
“Findings suggest officer characteristics and performance are not primary drivers of”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: The remaining linked BWC activation records accurately represent BWC activation during calls-for-service.
- Rests on an assumption: Administrative counts of self-initiated contacts, arrests, complaints, and use of force validly measure officer performance.
Premisecitation
Katz and Huff (2023) identified a range of variables significantly associated with BWC activation, especially characteristics of the specific incident.
“Katz and Huff (2023) identified a range of variables significantly associated with BWC activation, especially characteristics of the specific incident (e.g., dispatched call, call outcome).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
Premisenone given
Only a handful of studies have sought to identify factors that affect officers' decision to activate a BWC.
“only a handful of studies have sought to identify factors that affect officers' decision to activate a BWC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Many law enforcement departments have struggled with officers' failure to activate BWCs.
“As BWCs have spread in law enforcement, many departments have struggled with their officers' failure to activate the devices (Boivin et al., 2022;Hedberg et al., 2017;Lawrence et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Boivin et al., 2022 source
- cites Hedberg et al., 2017 source
- cites Lawrence et al., 2019 source
Premisenone given
Studies suggest that BWC activation rates are often modest.
“Studies suggest that activation rates are often modest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Boivin et al. (2022) and Lawrence et al. (2019) reported a greater likelihood of BWC activation given certain incident-level and officer characteristics.
“Boivin et al. (2022) and Lawrence et al. (2019) similarly reported a greater likelihood of activation given certain incident-level (e.g., call type) and officer characteristics (e.g., experience, gender).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Boivin et al. (2022) source
- cites Lawrence et al. (2019) source
Premisereasoning
Researchers have yet to investigate activation on a larger scale as an officer-level decision-making process across multiple citizen interactions, i.e., activation rates over time as an officer-level performance measure.
“researchers have yet to investigate activation on a larger scale as an officer-level decision-making process across multiple citizen interactions: that is, activation rates over time as an officer-level performance measure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Activation rates can vary greatly among officers in a single department, with individual officer rates ranging from 0% to over 70%.
“Lawrence et al. (2019) and White et al. (2018) documented individual officer rates ranging from 0% to over 70%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al. (2019) source
- cites White et al. (2018) source
Study design and conductown data
Likelihood-ratio tests showed that negative binomial estimation was a better fit than Poisson for each count model examined.
“Likelihood-ratio tests were additionally used to examine whether a negative binomial estimation was a better fit than Poisson for each count model examined.All results were statistically significant, further supporting the use of negative binomial models (results are available from the authors on request).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Study design and conductown data
Negative binomial models were used instead of Poisson due to evidence of overdispersion in the number of BWC activations.
“Negative binomial models were used instead of Poisson due to evidence of overdispersion in the number of BWC activations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Study design and conductown data
Diagnostic tests did not raise concerns about multicollinearity in the negative binomial models or multinomial logistic regression models examined (all individual VIFs < 2.2; mean VIF = 1.59).
“Diagnostic tests did not raise any concerns about multicollinearity in the negative binomial models or multinomial logistic regression models examined (all individual VIFs < 2.2; mean VIF = 1.59).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Incidents with more bystanders present are more likely to result in BWC activation.
“Incidents with more bystanders (Ready & Young, 2015) and officers (Boivin & Gendron, 2021) present are more likely to result in activation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Ready & Young, 2015 source
Interpretationcitation
The PPD policy change also drove increases in BWC activation at the officer level.
“These results indicate that this also drove increases in BWC activation at the officer-level.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz & Huff, 2023 source
Premisecitation
BWC activation is more likely in incidents that ended in arrest.
“Katz and Huff (2023) also documented a greater likelihood of activation in incidents where force was used and those that ended in arrest (see also Huff et al., 2020a).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
- cites Huff et al., 2020a
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Premisecitation
BWC activation is more likely in incidents involving serious or violent offenses.
“incidents involving serious or violent offenses (Boivin & Gendron, 2022;Boivin et al., 2022;Katz & Huff, 2023;Lawrence et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Boivin & Gendron, 2022 source
- cites Boivin et al., 2022 source
- cites Katz & Huff, 2023 source
Study design and conductnone given
Every negative binomial model reported uses an officer's total number of calls-for-service as an exposure variable.
“Every negative binomial model reported uses an officer's total number of calls-forservice as an exposure variable.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
Study design and conductreasoning
Using calls-for-service as an exposure variable allows the BWC activation count and counts of officer performance to be interpreted as incidence rate ratios of each activity by number of calls-for-service.
“As such, both the BWC activation count outcome variable and all counts of officer performance included as independent variables can be interpreted as incidence rate ratios of each activity by number of calls-forservice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
Premisecitation
Officer self-initiated calls are less likely to result in BWC activation than community member calls-for-service.
“Both Katz and Huff (2023) and Lawrence et al. (2019)found that officer self-initiated calls are less likely to result in BWC activation than a community member call-for-service.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
- cites Lawrence et al. (2019) source
Premisecitation
BWC activation was significantly lower in neighborhoods with larger Hispanic populations.
“except for significantly lower activation in neighborhoods with larger Hispanic populations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
Premisecitation
When officers did not notify community members of the BWC and did not activate at the start of the encounter, use of force increased by 71%.
“When officers did not notify community members of the BWC and did not activate at the start of the encounter, use of force increased by 71%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Ariel (2016)
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Premisecitation
BWC activation is more likely in incidents where force was used.
“Katz and Huff (2023) also documented a greater likelihood of activation in incidents where force was used and those that ended in arrest (see also Huff et al., 2020a).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
- cites Huff et al., 2020a
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Interpretationreasoning
The lack of significant predictors of officer-level BWC activation suggests the primary drivers of BWC activation are related to the incident, not the officer.
“Last, the lack of significant predictors of officer-level BWC activation suggests the primary drivers of BWC activation are related to the incident, not the officer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Interpretationreasoning
The findings may be driven, at least in part, by the maturity of the Phoenix BWC program, which is a decade old.
“The findings here may be driven, at least in part, by the maturity of the Phoenix BWC program, which is a decade old.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
At least in the Phoenix Police Department, the primary drivers of officer activation rates are not tied to officer demographics, work assignment, or other behavioral performance measures.
“At least in the Phoenix Police Department, the primary drivers of officer activation rates are not tied to officer demographics, work assignment, or other behavioral performance measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Interpretationcitation
These findings together suggest that factors other than officer-level characteristics are important predictors of officer decisions to activate their BWCs.
“These findings together suggest that factors other than officer-level characteristics are important predictors of officer decisions to activate their BWCs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Study design and conductown data
The study relied on some officer-level factors that were only captured at one point in time (education level, precinct assignment), inhibiting an assessment of whether change in these characteristics could influence activation.
“Relatedly, the study relied on some officer-level factors that were only captured at one point in time (education level, precinct assignment), inhibiting an assessment of whether change in these characteristics could influence activation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Interpretationown data
The results of this study suggest that officer-level characteristics do not significantly predict whether an officer will decline their use of BWCs, relative to following an increasing trajectory.
“The results of this study suggest that officer-level characteristics do not significantly predict whether an officer will decline their use of BWCs, relative to following an increasing trajectory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Interpretationreasoning
This study points toward other factors as the primary drivers of BWC activation.
“As such, this study points toward other factors as the primary drivers of BWC activation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Interpretationown data
These results suggest little overlap between officer-level BWC activation rates and other officer characteristics and performance measures.
“These results suggest little overlap between officer-level BWC activation rates and other officer characteristics and performance measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Study design and conductnone given
It was not possible to determine whether supervisors were actively complying with the PPD policy requiring sergeants to randomly select and review officer BWC footage weekly.
“However, it was not possible to determine whether supervisors were actively complying with this policy in the current study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Katz and Huff (2023) found that departmental policy and situational characteristics exhibited the strongest relationship with BWC activation, along with neighborhood context such as ethnic composition and population density.
“They found that departmental policy and situational characteristics exhibited the strongest relationship with BWC activation, along with neighborhood context such as ethnic composition and population density.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
Interpretationown data
The findings suggest limited relationships between officer characteristics, performance measures, and officer-level BWC activation behaviors.
“The findings suggest limited relationships between officer characteristics, performance measures, and officer-level BWC activation behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
Interpretationown data
The 4th trajectory adds little substantive value to justify including a 4th trajectory in the final model.
“adding little substantive value to justify including a 4th trajectory in the final model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
It appears that activation fatigue could set in after officers use the technology for an extended period of time.
“It appears that activation fatigue could set in after officers use the technology for an extended period of time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Study design and conductnone given
The current study uses data from a subset of officers in a large police agency.
“Similarly, the current study uses data from a subset of officers in a large police agency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

May combine two claims. 25
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 40
The quote only partly states this claim. 1

May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Female and older or more experienced officers were less likely to activate their BWC in Montreal, Canada and Queensland, Australia.
“Two studies conducted in Montreal, Canada, and Queensland, Australia, reported that female and older or more experienced officers were less likely to activate their BWC (Boivin & Gendron, 2022;Martain et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
- cites Boivin & Gendron, 2022 source
- cites Martain et al., 2021 source
  In “Compliance by gender, rank and age group” (pp. 9–10), the Queensland study reports fewer mean activations for female officers and significant differences among age groups. It does not establish a general pattern that more experienced officers activate less: senior constables had the highest mean among the non-commissioned ranks examined. This paper studies Queensland, not Montreal; the sentence also cites a separate study for Montreal. (LLM, conf=0.83)
  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown data
The first trajectory represents a pattern of gradually decreasing BWC activation levels from the beginning through the end of the study, referred to as the decreased trajectory.
“The first trajectory represents a pattern of gradually decreasing BWC activation levels from the beginning through the end of the study, referred to as”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
The second trajectory shows increasing BWC activation levels around the 10th period, likely in response to the new activation policy, then maintaining an activation rate slightly below 80% through the end of the study with a small dip around the 25th period.
“The second trajectory shows a trend of increasing BWC activation levels around the 10 th period of the study, likely in response to the new activation policy, then maintaining an activation rate slightly below 80% through the end of the study with a small dip around the 25 th period.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
The average officer-level BWC activation rate was 63%, ranging from 0% to 88%.
“As shown in Table 1, the average officer-level activation rate was 63%, ranging from a low of 0% to a high of 88%.”
- Also stated in: § Implications · hedged
  “First, individual officer activation rates ranged from 0-88%, indicating substantial variation in BWC use among officers.”
- Also stated in: § Implications · plain
  “Third, it is important to note that the highest activation rate among all officers in the study was 88%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
Individual officer activation patterns displayed a wide range, with some officers in every period activating their BWC in less than 10% of all encounters and many activating their BWCs in more than 80%.
“The individual officer lines display a wide range of activation patterns among individual officers, with some officers in every period activating their BWC in less than 10% of all encounters and many activating their BWCs in more than 80%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
The mean BWC activation rate starts at slightly below 40% in the first period, jumps to above 70% at the 10th period, and levels off around 60-75% for the remainder of the study period.
“As shown in Figure 1, the mean activation rate starts at slightly below 40% in the first period, jumps to above 70% at the 10 th period, and levels off around 60-75% for”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown data
The final trajectory displays an increased activation rate around the same time as the increased then tapered off group, but subsequently decreasing use of BWCs around the halfway point and continuing to decline through the end of the study.
“The final trajectory displays an increased activation rate around the same time as the”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
24.0% of officers initially increased their activation rates in response to a new activation policy, but their activation declined through the end of the study.
“Additionally, 24.0% of officers initially increased their activation rates in response to a new activation policy, but their activation declined through the end of the study.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown data
The BIC increases when using a 4 trajectory solution.
“while the BIC increases when using a 4 trajectory solution (as expected)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
Officers' activation rate does not align with their proactivity, arrest activity, complaints, or use of force.
“Officers' activation rate does not align with their proactivity, arrest activity, complaints, or use of force.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
Models 1 and 2 examining the influence of demographic characteristics and assignments, respectively, do not identify any significant associations between these officer-level factors and their activation trajectories.
“Models 1 and 2 examining the influence of demographic characteristics and assignments, respectively, do not identify any significant associations between these officer-level factors and their activation trajectories.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
- Rests on an assumption: Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
The 9.4% of officers in the decreased trajectory activated their BWCs in less than half of their encounters at the start of the study and even less frequently at the end of the study period.
“The 9.4% of officers in the decreased trajectory activated their BWCs in less than half of their encounters at the start of the study and even less frequently at the end of the study period.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Low BWC activation rates can short-circuit BWCs' hypothesized civilizing effect and compromise a department's accountability efforts.
“low activation rates can also short-circuit BWCs' hypothesized “civilizing effect” and compromise a department's accountability efforts (Patterson & White, 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Patterson & White, 2021 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
The New Orleans Police Department reported activation rates as high as 97-99%.
“The New Orleans Police Department, which is under a federal consent decree, has reported activation rates as high as 97-99% (Looney, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Looney, 2016
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Premisecitation
Low activation compliance is a form of implementation failure.
“low activation compliance is a form of implementation failure”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al., 2019 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisereasoning
It is unknown whether officers' BWC activation rates align with other measures of police officer performance, such as proactivity, arrests, use of force, and complaints.
“it is unknown whether officers' BWC activation rates align with other measures of police officer performance, such as proactivity, arrests, use of force, and complaints.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Montreal, Canada officers activated their BWCs in 73% of required incidents.
“Montreal, Canada (73%, Boivin et al., 2022)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Boivin et al., 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Tempe, Arizona officers activated their BWCs in 73% of required incidents.
“Tempe, Arizona (73%, City of Tempe, 2023)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites City of Tempe, 2023
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
The activation rate among Phoenix, Arizona officers improved from 32% in 2013-14 to 70% in 2018.
“The activation rate among Phoenix, Arizona officers has steadily improved over time, from 32% in 2013-14 (Katz et al., 2015) to 70% in 2018 (Huff et al., 2020a).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Katz et al., 2015
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Huff et al., 2020a
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Anaheim, California officers activated their BWCs in 54% of required incidents.
“Anaheim, California (54%; Lawrence et al., 2019)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al., 2019 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Ready and Young (2015) reported that Mesa, Arizona police officers activated their cameras in about 60% of required incidents.
“Ready and Young (2015) reported that Mesa (Arizona) police officers activated their cameras in about 60% of required incidents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Ready and Young (2015) source
May combine two claims.
Premisereasoning
Research has not examined the extent to which correlates of low and high BWC activators can be identified, or officer change in activation patterns over time.
“research has not examined the extent to which we can identify correlates of low and high BWC activators, or officer change in activation patterns over time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone given
All the benefits generated by BWCs hinge on officers' regularly activating the cameras during their encounters with community members.
“All the benefits generated by BWCs hinge on officers' regularly activating the cameras during their encounters with community members.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Premisecitation
Any intervention or program, including BWCs, will not be effective if it is not appropriately implemented.
“any intervention or programincluding BWCswill not be effective if it is not appropriately implemented (Lawrence et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al., 2019 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
BWC activation is more likely in domestic violence calls.
“BWC activation is more likely in domestic violence calls (Katz et al., 2015)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz et al., 2015
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitation
The selection of 2-week periods for displaying change over time is consistent with prior research that assessed officer BWC activation every 2 weeks.
“The selection of 2-week periods for displaying change over time is consistent with prior research that assessed officer BWC activation every 2 weeks (e.g., Lawrence et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al., 2019 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
If BWCs are employed as described (i.e., 100% activation compliance), a majority of complaints against officers would be eliminated.
“Hedberg et al. (2017) concluded “if BWCs are employed as described [i.e., 100% activation compliance], a majority of complaints against officers would be eliminated” (p.642).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Hedberg et al. (2017) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning
The final sample size for the current study is 149 officers because some officers were removed for missing data on key variables of interest.
“the final sample size for the current study is 149 due to some officers being removed for missing data on key variables of interest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Officer job-related factors such as shift, precinct, and education remained constant over the 18-month study period.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
The trajectories are representative of latent classes that describe patterns of individual behaviors over time.
“the trajectories are representative of latent classes that describe patterns of individual behaviors over time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Nagin, 2014 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitation
The odds of correct classification were examined for each model specification to guide final model selection.
“The odds of correct classification were also examined for each model specification to guide final model selection (Nagin, 2005;Wheeler, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Nagin, 2005 source
- cites Wheeler, 2016
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
A restrictive BWC activation policy is associated with a higher activation rate (79.5%) compared to a more discretionary policy (54%).
“Young and Ready (2018) documented a higher activation rate under a restrictive BWC activation policy (79.5%) compared to a more discretionary policy (54%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Young and Ready (2018)
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
BWC activation reduces the odds of arrest in Black neighborhoods.
“Huff (2022) investigated the relationship between BWC activation and the outcomes of police contacts across neighborhoods in Phoenix, finding that activation reduces the odds of arrest in Black, but not Hispanic neighborhoods.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Huff (2022) source
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Community-level factors such as crime rate, social disorganization, racial/ethnic makeup, and population density were non-significant or somewhat modest for BWC activation.
“community-level factors such as crime rate, social disorganization, racial/ethnic makeup, and population density were non-significant or somewhat modest”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data
The group-based trajectory analysis demonstrates a more nuanced story than the average activation rate, where some officers never increased their activation at all, and others had a much shorter period of heightened activation before decreasing their activation levels more dramatically.
“The group-based trajectory analysis demonstrates a more nuanced story, where some officers never increased their activation at all, and others had a much shorter period of heightened activation before decreasing their activation levels more dramatically.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
BWC activation does not reduce the odds of arrest in Hispanic neighborhoods.
“Huff (2022) investigated the relationship between BWC activation and the outcomes of police contacts across neighborhoods in Phoenix, finding that activation reduces the odds of arrest in Black, but not Hispanic neighborhoods.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Huff (2022) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
A previous study found that announcing the PPD BWC activation policy change resulted in dramatic increases in activation at the incident level.
“A previous study found that announcing this policy change resulted in dramatic increases in activation at the incident level (Katz & Huff, 2023).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz & Huff, 2023 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
The highest activation rates were found among officers who routinely engaged in the types of incidents where BWC activation is mandatory.
“Adams et al. (2021) similarly found the highest activation rates among officers who routinely engaged in the types of incidents where BWC activation is mandatory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Adams et al. (2021) source
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown data
The authors were unable to assess the extent of changes in officer job-related factors or to account for any change in these factors because the data were received solely at one point in time.
“we were unable to assess the extent of these changes or to account for any change in these factors due to the data being received solely at one point in time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Officer job-related factors such as shift, precinct, and education remained constant over the 18-month study period.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Individual observations are allowed to retain distinct trends in the outcome variable over time, even when categorized into the same trajectory.
“Individual observations are allowed to retain distinct trends in the outcome variable over time, even when categorized into the same trajectory (Nagin, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Nagin, 2014 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Female officers were less likely to activate their BWC in a given encounter.
“Katz and Huff (2023) also found that female officers were less likely to activate”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Incidents with more officers present are more likely to result in BWC activation.
“Incidents with more bystanders (Ready & Young, 2015) and officers (Boivin & Gendron, 2021) present are more likely to result in activation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Boivin & Gendron, 2021
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning
It is possible that some officers might have changed shifts, precincts, or earned higher levels of education during the 18-month study period.
“it is possible that some officers might have changed shifts, precincts, or earned higher levels of education during the 18-month study period.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Officer job-related factors such as shift, precinct, and education remained constant over the 18-month study period.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone given
All analyses include the number of calls-for-service each officer responded to while assigned to wear a BWC as a control variable to capture differences in opportunity for activation.
“All analyses include the number of calls-for-service each officer responded to while being assigned to wear a BWC as a measure of exposure or as a control variable to capture differences in opportunity for activation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Age and officer experience were unrelated to BWC activation in Anaheim.
“Lawrence et al. (2019) reported that age and officer experience were unrelated to BWC activation in Anaheim (see also Adams et al., 2021).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al. (2019) source
- cites Adams et al., 2021 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Phoenix officers' activation rates increased from 40% to 73% following the implementation of a more restrictive activation policy requiring officers to activate upon receipt of a call for service.
“Phoenix officers' activation rates increased from 40% to 73% following the implementation of a more restrictive activation policy requiring officers to activate upon receipt of a call for service, as opposed to activating at the time of officer-citizen contact (Katz & Huff, 2023).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz & Huff, 2023 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Officer race, education, and length of service were not associated with BWC activation decision-making in a given encounter.
“officer race, education, and length of service were not associated with activation decision-making in a given encounter.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Officer precinct was associated with BWC activation.
“Katz and Huff (2023) reported that officer precinct was associated with activation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Katz and Huff (2023) source
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
The new PPD BWC activation policy went into effect in March 2018, though prior research found that the increase in activation occurred immediately after the policy was announced, before it went into effect.
“The new policy went into effect in March 2018, though prior research found that the increase in activation occurred immediately after the policy was announced, before it went into effect.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Officers who volunteered to wear a camera had higher activation rates than those mandated to wear one.
“They also reported higher activation rates among officers who volunteered to wear a camera than those mandated to wear one.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Young and Ready (2018)
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data
This subset of officers was initially responsive to policy change, but ultimately their use of BWCs declined precipitously.
“As such, this subset of officers was initially responsive to policy change, but ultimately their use of BWCs declined precipitously.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
The New Orleans Police Department consistently maintains high levels of BWC activation compliance, a success that could be attributed to external oversight provided through a U.S. Department of Justice consent decree.
“One agency that consistently maintains high levels of BWC activation compliance is the New Orleans Police Department (Looney, 2016), a success that could be attributed to external oversight provided through a U.S. Department of Justice consent decree.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Looney, 2016
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone given
The evaluation only covered eighteen months, and more variation in both officer activation rates and change in those rates over time could have manifested if a longer study period had been observed.
“Further, the evaluation only covered eighteen months, and more variation in both officer activation rates and change in those rates over time could have manifested if a longer study period had been observed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown data
The number of officers in each trajectory group is relatively small (n = 12 decreased; n = 38 increased then decreased; n = 99 increased and tapered), which could limit statistical power and contribute to the largely null findings identified.
“It is important to note that the number of officers in each trajectory group is relatively small (n = 12 decreased; n = 38 increased then decreased; n = 99 increased and tapered), which could limit statistical power and contribute to the largely null findings identified.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationcitation
Visual inspections supplement measures of fit in selecting the appropriate number of trajectories.
“further highlighting the benefits of visual inspections to supplement measures of fit.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitation
The data used here come from a single police agency that implemented BWCs relatively early in relation to other police departments.
“The data used here come from a single police agency that implemented BWCs relatively early in relation to other police departments (Huff et al., 2020a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Huff et al., 2020a
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning
It could be that, as a BWC program matures, problems with low activation become less about the officer and more about the incident.
“It could be that, as a BWC program matures, problems with low activation become less about the officerthe low activatorand more about the incidentlow activation encounters.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
The final group-based trajectory model was selected using a number of criteria, including visual examinations of trajectory plots.
“the final model was selected using a number of criteria, including visual examinations of trajectory plots.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Some scholars have raised concerns about the utility of BIC/AIC for selecting the appropriate number of trajectories using simulated data.
“Some scholars have also raised concerns about the utility of BIC/AIC for selecting the appropriate number of trajectories using simulated data”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites https://andrewpwheeler.com/2021/03/05/simulating-group-based-trajectories-in-r/
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Prior research in Anaheim found that officer activation rates ranged from 0-72%.
“This is consistent with prior research in Anaheim, which similarly found that officer activation rates ranged from 0-72% (Lawrence et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Lawrence et al., 2019 source

59 of 59

The paper relies on this without support.
Unlinked BWC activations were likely accidental or occurred outside the context of a police-citizen contact.
“It is likely that many of these activations were accidental or were activations that occurred outside the context of a police-citizen contact.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The remaining linked BWC activation records accurately represent BWC activation during calls-for-service.
“if it was possible to identify a corresponding incident in the CAD data that involved the same officer on the same day at the same time, the BWC activation data were updated to match the report number in CAD.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Officer job-related factors such as shift, precinct, and education remained constant over the 18-month study period.
“All officer job-related factors drawn from personnel files and organizational charts were collected from the City of Phoenix Human Resources Department at the beginning of the study.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Administrative counts of self-initiated contacts, arrests, complaints, and use of force validly measure officer performance.
“The relationship between activation and other traditional performance measures is also assessed, including counts of self-initiated contacts, arrests, complaints, and use of force.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The number of calls-for-service an officer responded to is a valid measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.
“This allows us to interpret the results as the influence of various officerlevel factors on activation rates, using the number of calls-for-service officers responded to as a measure of the number of opportunities they had to activate their BWC.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Individual officers serving as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model does not violate the assumption of independence.
“Further, given that individual officers serve as the unit of analysis in each multivariate model, this approach does not violate the assumption of independence.”

6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Model note misstates the outcomes used in later analyses
Minor
The note says all later models use activation counts as the dependent variable. The paper also describes a trajectory model whose dependent variable is activation percentage, so the note's blanket statement is false.
Gender result has an overstated significance level
Minor
The prose reports p < .01 for the Model 1 gender effect. The table gives a coefficient of 0.426 with SE 0.185, yielding a test statistic of about 2.30 and a two-sided p-value of about .021, rather than below .01.

2 of 2

Group-Based Modeling of Development
NAGIN, D. (2005) · doi:10.4159/9780674041318 · Cited by 4,164 · cited 3× · see citing works
“A combination of statistical criteria (e.g., the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC)) and visual inspections of various models are used to identify the optimal model (Nagin, 2005).”
A Note on a Stata Plugin for Estimating Group-based Trajectory Models
Jones, B. L., & Nagin, D. S. (2013) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124113503141 · Cited by 906 · see citing works
Group-Based Trajectory Modeling: An Overview
Nagin, D. S. (2014) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000360229 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
The effect of police body-worn cameras on use of force and citizens’ complaints against the police: A randomized controlled trial
Ariel, B., Farrar, W. A., & Sutherland, A. (2015) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-014-9236-3 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Research on body‐worn cameras: What we know, what we need to know
Lum, C., Stoltz, M., Koper, C. S., & Scherer, J. A. (2019) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12412 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Body-worn cameras’ effects on police officers and citizen behavior: A systematic review
Lum, C., Koper, C. S., Wilson, D. B., Stoltz, M., Goodier, M., Eggins, E., Higginson, A., & Mazerolle, L. (2020) · Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World · doi:10.1002/cl2.1112 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Evaluating the impact of police officer body-worn cameras (BWCs) on response-to-resistance and serious external complaints: Evidence from the Orlando police department (OPD) experience utilizing a randomized controlled experiment
Jennings, W. G., Lynch, M. D., & Fridell, L. A. (2015) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.10.003 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Cops and cameras: Officer perceptions of the use of body-worn cameras in law enforcement
Jennings, W. G., Fridell, L. A., & Lynch, M. D. (2014) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.09.008 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
The impact of on-officer video cameras on police–citizen contacts: findings from a controlled experiment in Mesa, AZ
Ready, J. T., & Young, J. T. N. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-015-9237-8 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Untitled work
(2014) · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Self-citation
Body-Worn Cameras and Citizen Interactions with Police Officers: Estimating Plausible Effects Given Varying Compliance Levels
Hedberg, E. C., Katz, C. M., & Choate, D. E. (2017) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2016.1198825 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Self-citation
Officer Perceptions of Body-Worn Cameras Before and After Deployment
Gaub, J. E., Choate, D. E., Todak, N. E., Katz, C. M., & White, M. D. (2016) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611116653398 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Self-citation
Police Body-Worn Cameras: Perceptions of Law Enforcement Leadership
Smykla, J. O., Crow, M. S., Crichlow, V. J., & Snyder, J. A. (2015) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-015-9316-4 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Criminal Justice Review
Murphy, A. (2016) · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Untitled work
(2014) · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Assessing citizen perceptions of body-worn cameras after encounters with police
White, M. D., Todak, N. E., & Gaub, J. E. (2017) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-07-2016-0105 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Self-citation
Examining Body‐Worn Camera Integration and Acceptance Among Police Officers, Citizens, and External Stakeholders
White, M. D., Todak, N., & Gaub, J. E. (2018) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12376 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citation
Inconsistencies in Public Opinion of Body-Worn Cameras on Police: Transparency, Trust, and Improved Police–Citizen Relationships
Sousa, W. H., Miethe, T. D., & Sakiyama, M. (2017) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pax015 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Cops, Cameras, and Crisis
White, M. D., & Malm, A. E. (2020) · New York University Press eBooks · doi:10.18574/nyu/9781479820177.001.0001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citation
A randomized control trial evaluating the effects of police body-worn cameras
Yokum, D. V., Ravishankar, A., & Coppock, A. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1814773116 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Assessing the effects of body‐worn cameras on procedural justice in the Los Angeles Police Department*
McCluskey, J. D., Uchida, C. D., Solomon, S. E., Wooditch, A., Connor, C., & Revier, L. (2019) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12201 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Body Worn Cameras, Procedural Justice, and Police Legitimacy: A Controlled Experimental Evaluation of Traffic Stops
Demir, M., Apel, R. J., Braga, A. A., Brunson, R. K., & Ariel, B. (2018) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1495751 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Post-experimental follow-ups—Fade-out versus persistence effects: The Rialto police body-worn camera experiment four years on
Sutherland, A., Ariel, B., Farrar, W. A., & Anda, R. D. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.09.008 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Body-Worn Cameras in Policing: Benefits and Costs
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Measuring “what matters” in 21st-century policing: partnering with civilian oversight to assess procedurally just policing in Philadelphia
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“It is possible that not every eligible stop was captured using a BWC. Prior research has identified wide variation in BWC activation rates across individual officers (Huff et al., 2024; Lawrence et al., 2019).”
Self-citation
‘History is written by the victor … but in some cases, it's also now written by the recordings’: Body-worn cameras and the double-edged nature of police visibility
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“…as accountability mechanisms varies depending on factors including how much discretion of ﬁ cers are given over the activation of BWCs and whether (or not) there are clear and enforced operational guidelines governing their use (Boivin et al., 2022; Huff et al., 2024; Katz and Huff, 2023).”
AI, body‐worn cameras, and a potential civilizing effect for officers: Evidence from the Arizona Truleo study
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Authors: Huff, J., White, M. D., Malm, A. E., & Katz, C. M.
Affiliations: University of Cincinnati (US)
Arizona State University (US)
California State University System (US)
Corresponding author: Huff, Jessica
ORCID: Huff, Jessica
White, Michael D.
Malm, Aili E.
Katz, Charles M.
Venue: Police Quarterly
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2024-03-23
Volume: 28
Issue: 1
Pages: 45-77
ISSN: 1098-6111 (ISSN-L)
1552-745X
DOI: 10.1177/10986111241241751
OpenAlex: W4393112122
Cited by: 7
References: 48
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3
FWCI: 10.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Police Quarterly (publishedVersion)
Funders: Bureau of Justice Assistance (2015-WY-BX-0004)
Topics: Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
Health Sciences › Health Professions › Radiological and Ultrasound Technology › Occupational Health and Safety Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Traumatic Ocular and Foreign Body Injuries
Keywords: body-worn cameras, police accountability, police transparency, police performance, proactive behavior, police supervision, police training

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An Officer-Level Examination of the Prevalence and Correlates of Police Body-Worn Camera Activation

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