Cited by 239Autism Spectrum Disorder ResearchChild Nutrition and Feeding IssuesFamily and Disability Support Research

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Screening for autism spectrum disorders in primary care settings

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Robins, Diana L.·2008·Autism

DOI 10.1177/1362361308094502PMC PMC4732522

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Abstract

The need for autism-specific screening during pediatric well-child visits has been established. However, additional support for specific screening instruments is needed. The current study used the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M—CHAT) and the M—CHAT Follow-Up Interview to screen 4797 children during toddler checkups. Of the 4797 cases, 466 screened positive on the M—CHAT; of the 362 who completed the follow-up interview, 61 continued to show risk for autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). A total of 41 children have been evaluated; 21 children have been diagnosed with ASD, 17 were classified with non-ASD delays, and three were typically developing. The PPV of M—CHAT plus interview was .57. It is notable that only four of the 21 cases of ASD were flagged by their pediatrician. These findings suggest that the M—CHAT is effective in identifying ASD in primary care settings. Future research will follow this sample longitudinally.

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“Robins (2008) found a much lower (0.06) PPV in an unselected sample attending well-child visits, but following the telephone interview the PPV increased to 0.57.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
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“…Brayne 2006) have advocated deferring universal screening for ASDs until such comprehensive data can be collected, the consensus appears to be that despite a limited data base regarding the psychometric properties of specific screeners, the value of screening far exceeds the risks (Robins 2008).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“The M-CHAT and Follow-Up has a positive predictive value (PPV) for ASD of .54 to .65, and a PPV for all developmental delays that warrant intervention of .90 to .98 (Robins 2008; Kleinman et al. 2008; Chlebowski et al. 2013).”
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“Detailed information about the M-CHAT is available elsewhere (Kleinman et al. 2008; Robins 2008; Robins et al. 2001; Robins and Dumont-Mathieu 2006).”
Method
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“, M-CHAT and the Infant Toddler Checklist [ITC]) detected ASD earlier and more consistently (49,50).”
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“This has also been suggested in other studies ( Robins 2008 ).”
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Influential
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“However Robins (2008) in a study of unselected toddlers reported a positive predictive value of 6 % but this rose to 57 % after follow-up interviews, In these studies the internal reliability of the M-CHAT was high with a Chronbach’s alpha of 0.85.”
BackgroundInfluential
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Influential
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“A number of studies have focused on screening and follow-up of very young children (Chawarska et al., 2007; Robins, 2008; Wetherby et al., 2008) in whom early signs can be identified.”
Background
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Method
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Background
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“In one fair-quality study, ,20% of children screening at risk were flagged by surveillance.(35) An additional fair-quality study in the United States screened toddlers at all scheduled medical appointments (well-child, sick, follow-up, injection visit) over 6 months at a large community-based pediatric practice.”
Background
The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers: Reliability in a Diverse Rural American Sample
Scarpa, A., Reyes, N., Patriquin, M. A., Lorenzi, J., Hassenfeldt, T. A., Desai, V. J., & Kerkering, K. W. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1779-x · Cited by 61
“Many studies of the M-CHAT report percentages for the number of Caucasians, African-Americans, Latinos, and Asians who participate in their projects, but few go on to discuss differences among these groups (e.g., Kleinman et al. 2008; Robins 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Additional considerations for the early detection and diagnosis of autism: Review of available instruments
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“Early signs of ASD can be observed in the first few years of life (Robins, 2008; Werner et al., 2000), with electroencephalographic abnormalities shown in the first few months after birth (Precenzano et al., 2020), indicating prenatal factors may be important.”
Background
Gender Differences in Core Symptomatology in Autism Spectrum Disorders across the Lifespan
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“Further research of the psychometric properties of the M-CHAT has been conducted (L. C. Eaves, Wingert, & Ho, 2006; Kleinman, et al., 2008; Kuban, et al., 2009; Pandey, et al., 2008; Robins, 2008; Snow & Lecavalier, 2008).”
Method
The French Version of the Modified-Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT): A Validation Study on a French Sample of 24 Month-Old Children
Baduel, S., Guillon, Q., Afzali, M. H., Foudon, N., Kruck, J., & Rogé, B. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2950-y · Cited by 49
Examination of the Properties of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) in a Population Sample
Yama, B. A., Freeman, T., Graves, E., Yuan, S., & Campbell, M. K. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1211-3 · Cited by 48
“Additionally, while the follow-up telephone interview has been applied in many studies (Robins et al. 2001; Kleinman et al. 2008; Pandey et al. 2008; Robins 2008 ) its use is not unanimous (Snow and Lecavalier 2008; Limperopoulos et al. 2008).”
MethodResultInfluential
Autism Spectrum Disorders: Diagnosis and Treatment
Lordan, R., Storni, C., & Benedictis, C. A. D. (2021) · Exon Publications eBooks · doi:10.36255/exonpublications.autismspectrumdisorders.2021.diagnosis · Cited by 55
Screening Children for Autism in an Urban Clinic Using an Electronic M-CHAT
Harrington, J. W., Bai, R., & Perkins, A. M. (2012) · Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/0009922812463957 · Cited by 45
A systematic review of screening tools in non-young children and adults for autism spectrum disorder
Hirota, T., So, R., Kim, Y. S., LEVENTHAL, B. L., & EPSTEIN, R. A. (2018) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2018.05.017 · Cited by 51
Predicting autism diagnosis by 7 years of age using parent report of infant social communication skills
Veness, C., Prior, M. R., Eadie, P. A., Bavin, E. L., & Reilly, S. (2014) · Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health · doi:10.1111/jpc.12614 · Cited by 44
Comparison of a broad-based screen versus disorder-specific screen in detecting young children with an autism spectrum disorder
Wiggins, L. D., Piazza, V., & Robins, D. L. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361312466962 · Cited by 42
“The M-CHAT FUI improves the specificity and positive predictive value of the M-CHAT by reducing the false positive rate (Kleinman et al., 2008; Robins, 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Early Autism Diagnosis in the Primary Care Setting
James, S., & Smith, C. J. (2020) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2020.100827 · Cited by 59
Early identification of autism: A comparison of the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers
SUNITA, S., & Bilszta, J. L. C. (2012) · Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2012.02558.x · Cited by 43
Developmental Approaches to Understanding and Treating Autism
Charman, T. (2010) · Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica · doi:10.1159/000314032 · Cited by 38
Estimación de la prevalencia de trastorno del Espectro Autista en población urbana chilena
Yáñez, C., Maira, P., Elgueta, C., Brito, M., Crockett, M. A., Troncoso, L., López, C., & Troncoso, M. (2021) · Andes pediatrica · doi:10.32641/andespediatr.v92i4.2503 · Cited by 38
Screening for autism spectrum disorder in very preterm infants during early childhood
Gray, P. H., Edwards, D. M., O'Callaghan, M. J., & GIBBONS, K. S. (2015) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.02.007 · Cited by 42
“The infants in the current study were identified at birth while the infants in the studies that have reported higher rates of positive screening were recruited from infants attending doctors' clinics [15,32].”
Background
Postpartum depression and child development in first year of life
Morais, M. D. L. S. E., Lucci, T. K., & Otta, E. (2013) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/s0103-166x2013000100002 · Cited by 38
“Robins (2008) highlights its importance as a screening tool for developmental problems, being desirable that it be applied in childcare.”
Background
Autism spectrum disorder: psychological and functional assessment, and behavioral treatment approaches
Chahin, S. S., Apple, R. W., Kuo, K. H., & Dickson, C. A. (2020) · Translational Pediatrics · doi:10.21037/tp.2019.11.06 · Cited by 39
“The MCHAT-revised followed in 2009 (10).”
Rates of detection of developmental problems at the 18‐month well‐baby visit by family physicians' using four evidence‐based screening tools compared to usual care: a randomized controlled trial
Thomas, R. E., Spragins, W., Mazloum, G., Cronkhite, M., & Maru, G. S. (2016) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12333 · Cited by 38
Associações entre Sinais Precoces de Autismo, Atenção Compartilhada e Atrasos no Desenvolvimento Infantil
Zaqueu, L. D. C. C., Teixeira, M. C. T. V., Alckmin-Carvalho, F., & Paula, C. S. (2015) · Psicologia Teoria e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/0102-37722015032243293302 · Cited by 46
Screening for ASD with the Korean CBCL/1½–5
Rescorla, L. A., Kim, Y. A., & Oh, K. J. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2255-y · Cited by 39
Validación del M-CHAT-R/F como instrumento de tamizaje para detección precoz en niños con trastorno del espectro autista
Coelho-Medeiros, M. E., Bronstein, J., Aedo, K., Pereira, J. A., Arraño, V., Perez, C. A., Valenzuela, P. M., Moore, R., Garrido, I., & Bedregal, P. (2019) · Revista chilena de pediatría · doi:10.32641/rchped.v90i5.703 · Cited by 37
Engaging Pediatricians in Developmental Screening: The Effectiveness of Academic Detailing
Honigfeld, L., Chandhok, L., & Spiegelman, K. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1344-4 · Cited by 36
“The CHAT and M-CHAT screening tools also have been validated for use in pediatric primary care practices (Robins 2008).”
Method
Instrumentos para Rastreamento de Sinais Precoces do Autismo: Revisão Sistemática
Seize, M. D. M., & Borsa, J. C. (2017) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/1413-82712017220114 · Cited by 43
“…de Cronbach = 0,85 Tempo 1: PPV = 0,36 (questionário); PPV = 0,74 (entrevista) Tempo 2: PPV = 0,38 (questionário); PPV = 0,59 (entrevista) Robins (2008) População geral: 18-24 meses (N = 4.797)PPV = 0,57 M-CHAT/R-F Robins et al. (2014) População geral: 18-24 meses (N = 16.071) Precisão:…”
BackgroundInfluential
Early identification and intervention in autism spectrum disorders: Some progress but not as much as we hoped
Charman, T. (2014) · International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.3109/17549507.2013.859732 · Cited by 33
“Robins (2008) found a much lower (0.06) PPV in an unselected sample of 4797 children aged 14 – 30 months attending well-child visits, but following the telephone interview the PPV increased to 0.57.”
BackgroundInfluential
Moving From Research to Practice in the Primary Care of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Carbone, P. S. (2013) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2013.04.003 · Cited by 33
ECHO Autism: Integrating Maintenance of Certification with Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes Improves Developmental Screening
Bellesheim, K. R., Kizzee, R. L., Curran, A. B., & Sohl, K. (2020) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000796 · Cited by 32
“Survey responses by participating PCPs indicated that common perceived barriers were similar to those described in the literature: lack of sufficient time to administer screenings, lack of self-efficacy in managing children with ASD, and lack of access to ASD specialists.(9,11) Participation in ECHO Autism, including…”
BackgroundMethod
Autism screening at 18 months of age: a comparison of the Q-CHAT-10 and M-CHAT screeners
STURNER, R. A., Howard, B. J., Bergmann, P. E., Attar, S. M., Stewart, L., Bet, K., Allison, C. L., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2022) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-021-00480-4 · Cited by 32
Family navigation to increase evaluation for autism spectrum disorder in toddlers: screening and linkage to services for autism pragmatic randomized trial
DiGuiseppi, C., Rosenberg, S. A., Tomcho, M. A., Colborn, K., Hightshoe, K., Gutiérrez-Raghunath, S., Cordova, J. M., Dooling-Litfin, J. K., & Rosenberg, C. R. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320974175 · Cited by 31
“Children are screened at 18- and 24-month well visits using the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers– Revised with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F) (Robins, 2008; Robins et al., 2009, 2014), a two-step parent-report screener.”
Method
The Clinical Utility of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers with High Risk 18–48 Month Old Children in Singapore
Koh, H. C., Lim, S. H., Chan, G. F. C., Lin, M. B., Lim, H. H., Choo, S. H. T., & Magiati, I. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1880-1 · Cited by 31
Autism Spectrum Disorder Screening in Primary Care
Gura, G. F., Champagne, M. T., & Blood‐Siegfried, J. (2010) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e3182040aea · Cited by 31
Autism and General Developmental Screening Practices Among Primary Care Providers
Mazurek, M. O., Kuhlthau, K., Parker, R. A., Chan, J., & Sohl, K. (2021) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000909 · Cited by 30
An Exploratory Survey for Understanding Perceptions, Knowledge and Educational Needs of General Practitioners (GSs) Regarding Autistic Disorders in New South Wales (NSW), Australia
Garg, P. (2014) · JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH · doi:10.7860/jcdr/2014/8243.4527 · Cited by 31
Accurate Autism Screening at the 18-Month Well-Child Visit Requires Different Strategies than at 24 Months
STURNER, R. A., Howard, B. J., Bergmann, P. E., Morrel, T. M., Landa, R. J., Walton, K., & Marks, D. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3231-0 · Cited by 28
“Importantly, our results better represent the true performance of the M-CHAT/F for younger toddlers because, in contrast to these other studies, the M-CHAT/F was completed at nearly the same time as the 18-month check-up rather than via telephone interviews an average of 3 months later when tests for ASD all have high…”
Result
Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Profiles of Children Who Are Missed
Beacham, C., Reid, M., Bradshaw, J. L., Lambha, M., Evans, L. M., Gillespie, S. E., Klaiman, C., & Richardson, S. S. (2018) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000607 · Cited by 29
Brief Report: Best Discriminators for Identifying Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder at an 18-Month Health Check-Up in Japan
Kamio, Y., Haraguchi, H., Stickley, A., Ogino, K., Ishitobi, M., & Takahashi, H. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2527-1 · Cited by 27
“…18-month-old children might need more support through a two-step screening process compared to those of low-risk 24-month-old children, while Robins (2008) stated that the use of the followup interview for screen-positive children on the M-CHAT questionnaire should be integrated into the…”
Influential
Autism Screening: Where Do We Go From Here?
Zwaigenbaum, L., & Maguire, J. L. (2019) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-0925 · Cited by 26
The marmoset as a model for investigating the neural basis of social cognition in health and disease
Samandra, R., Haque, Z. Z., Rosa, M. G. P., & Mansouri, F. A. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104692 · Cited by 23
Identification of infants at risk for autism spectrum disorder and developmental language delay prior to 12 months
Samango‐Sprouse, C. A., Stapleton, E. J., Aliabadi, F., Graw, R., Vickers, R., Haskell, K., Sadeghin, T., Jameson, R., Parmele, C. L., & Gropman, A. L. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361314521329 · Cited by 27
“…in infancy and difficulty identifying reliable biomarkers and known variance in developmental trajectories of infants (Barbaro and Dissanayake, 2010; Kleinman et al., 2008; Luyster et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2011; Robins, 2008; Robins et al., 2001; Rogers, 2009; Wetherby and Prizant, 2002).”
Background
Abnormal axon guidance signals and reduced interhemispheric connection via anterior commissure in neonates of marmoset ASD model
Mimura, K., Oga, T., Sasaki, T., Nakagaki, K., Sato, C., Sumida, K., Hoshino, K., Saito, K., Miyawaki, I., Suhara, T., et al. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.006 · Cited by 26
The Performance of the First Year Inventory (FYI) Screening on a Sample of High-Risk 12-Month-Olds Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) at 36 Months
Lee, H. Y., Vigen, C. L. P., Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S. E., Smith, I. M., Brian, J. A., Watson, L. R., Crais, E. R., Turner‐Brown, L., Reznick, J. S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04208-5 · Cited by 24
“For example, Level 1, low-risk or first-stage screening is typically conducted at the general population level, whereas Level 2 screening involves a subsample of the population that is at risk for the disorder and frequently requires more time or expertise for administration (Robins 2008).”
Background
Measures of Child Development: A review
Bedford, H. E., Walton, S. A., & Ahn, J. J. (2013) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 25
Improving the early screening procedure for autism spectrum disorder in young children: Experience from a community‐based model in shanghai
Li, C., Zhu, G., Feng, J., Xu, Q., Zhou, Z., Zhou, B., Hu, C., Liu, C., Li, H., Wang, Y., et al. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1984 · Cited by 27
“To address this problem, many countries in North America and Europe carry out early ASD screening among children younger than 3 years [Noland & Gabriels, 2004; Robins, 2008; Chlebowski, Robins, Barton, & Fein, 2013].”
Background
Performance of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers in Spanish-Speaking Patients
Kimple, K. S., Bartelt, E. A., Wysocki, K. L., & Steiner, M. J. (2014) · Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/0009922814522346 · Cited by 28
“the standardized follow up interview intended for use in conjunction with the M-CHAT is designed to decrease false positives.(12,17) Initially, revisions to the tool were aimed at decreasing the need for the follow-up questionnaire to facilitate screening in a busy pediatric office.”
Method
Factors influencing autism spectrum disorder screening by community paediatricians
Ip, A., Zwaigenbaum, L., Nicholas, D. B., & Sharon, R. (2015) · Paediatrics & Child Health · doi:10.1093/pch/20.5.e20 · Cited by 21
ESAT and M-CHAT as screening instruments for autism spectrum disorders at 18 months in the general population: issues of overlap and association with clinical referrals
Beuker, K. T., Schjølberg, S., Lie, K. K., Willemsen‐Swinkels, S. H. N., Rommelse, N. N. J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2014) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0561-8 · Cited by 20
The modified checklist for autism in Turkish toddlers: A different cultural adaptation sample
Kondolot, M., Özmert, E. N., Öztop, D. B., Mazıcıoğlu, M. M., Gümüş, H., & Elmalı, F. (2015) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.10.006 · Cited by 20
Early identification and intervention services for children with autism in Vietnam
Tran, C. V., Weiss, B., Khuc, T. N., Tran, T. T., Nguyen, T. T. N., Hoa, N. T. K., & Dao, T. T. T. (2015) · Health Psychology Report · doi:10.5114/hpr.2015.53125 · Cited by 20
“A number of assessment tools are available for early identification (e.g., the CHAT [Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]; the updated M-CHAT; Robins, Barton, & Green, 2001; Robins & Dumont-Mathieu, 2006; Robins, 2008).”
Background
Urban and Education Disparity for Autism Spectrum Disorders in Taiwan Birth Cohort Study
Lung, F., Chiang, T., Lin, S.-J., & Shu, B. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2980-5 · Cited by 20
“Most screening tools have been evaluated in clinical samples referred for specialized assessment or in a mixture of clinical and population-based samples, but few researchers have examined the use of these screening tools in population-based studies (Beuker et al. 2014; Pandey et al. 2008; Robins 2008; Sternberg et al…”
Method
Workforce Development to Enhance the Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Health of Children and Youth: Opportunities and Barriers in Child Health Care Training
Boat, T. F., Land, M. L., Leslie, L. K., American Board of Pediatrics, Hoagwood, K., Hawkins‐Walsh, E., McCabe, M. A., Fräser, M. W., Zerden, L. D. S., Lombardi, B. M., et al. (2016) · NAM Perspectives · doi:10.31478/201611b · Cited by 20
“In addition, screening for autism spectrum disorders or adolescent depression is increasingly being incorporated into pediatric practices (Cheung et al., 2007; Committee on Children With Disabilities, 2001; Robins, 2008).”

Authors: Robins, D. L.
Affiliations: Georgia State University (US)
Corresponding author: Robins, Diana L.
ORCID: Robins, Diana L.
Venue: Autism
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2008-09
Volume: 12
Issue: 5
Pages: 537-556
ISSN: 1362-3613 (ISSN-L)
1461-7005
DOI: 10.1177/1362361308094502
PMC: PMC4732522
OpenAlex: W2158062042
Cited by: 239
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 21
FWCI: 5.36
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Autism (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R56HD035612)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, autism screening, M-CHAT, primary care, toddlers, positive predictive value, screening tool, developmental delay
MeSH terms: Autistic Disorder, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Mass Screening, Primary Health Care

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Screening for autism spectrum disorders in primary care settings

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