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Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
Based on the premise that what people think influences their actions, self-talk strategies have been developed to direct and facilitate human performance. In this article, we present a meta-analytic review of the effects of self-talk interventions on task performance in sport and possible factors that may moderate the effectiveness of self-talk. A total of 32 studies yielding 62 effect sizes were included in the final meta-analytic pool. The analysis revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48). The moderator analyses showed that self-talk interventions were more effective for tasks involving relatively fine, compared with relatively gross, motor demands, and for novel, compared with well-learned, tasks. Instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks than was motivational self-talk; moreover, instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks rather than gross tasks. Finally, interventions including self-talk training were more effective than those not including self-talk training. The results of this study establish the effectiveness of self-talk in sport, encourage the use of self-talk as a strategy to facilitate learning and enhance performance, and provide new research directions.
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“Teaching concentration can increase youth athletes’ abilities to focus, as can self-talk, and linking the association between positive self-talk and performance in youth athletes is paramount (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
From Integrating Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) with Psychological Skills Training (PST): a case study (2025) · cites this paper as Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011
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Lauria, M., Gallo, I., Rush, S. C., Brooks, J., Spiegel, R. J., & Weingart, S. D. (2017) · Annals of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2017.03.018 · Cited by 106
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Self-citationDolcos, S., & Albarracin, D. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2048 · Cited by 79
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“The only e ff ect size for self-talk was .48 (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
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“The use of predetermined cue words or phrases is the determining aspect of strategic self-talk interventions that have a long tradition particularly in sport psychology (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationChang, Y. K., Ho, L. A., Lu, F. J.-H., Ou, C.-C., Song, T.-F., & Gill, D. L. (2013) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.10.004 · Cited by 67
“…and the fact that only a few studies involved in systematic and meta-analytic reviews have adequately tested the task-matching hypothesis with appropriate selftalk nature and task types simultaneously (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011 and Tod et al., 2011), suggest the need for further research.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMental skills training with basic combat training soldiers: A group-randomized trial.
Adler, A. B., Bliese, P. D., Pickering, M. A., Hammermeister, J., Williams, J. G., Harada, C. M., Csoka, L. S., Holliday, B., & Ohlson, C. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000021 · Cited by 65
“For example, given that self-instructional training can be particularly useful in promoting performance on novel tasks (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), follow-on studies should examine the degree to which organizational socialization can be mediated by selfinstructional training (Bauer et al.”
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“Self-talk describes the use of self-instructional strategies to facilitate motivation and performance (e.g. ‘ I can do it ’ ; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundComoutos, N., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Bardas, D., & Theodorakis, Y. (2013) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.27.2.171 · Cited by 47
“Recently, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2011) using a metaanalytic approach revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48), confirming the effectiveness of self-talk interventions in enhancing task performance.”
ResultInfluentialSelf-citationCognitive Phenomenology, Access to Contents, and Inner Speech
Jorba, M., & Vicente, A. (2014) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · Cited by 44
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BackgroundMood Profiling for Sustainable Mental Health among Athletes
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“Recent research findings using meta-analysis suggest that self-talk strategies can make a valuable contribution to skill acquisition, learning, and task performance enhancement in sport (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011).”
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“Additionally, self-talk may prevent from anxiety by reappraising the meaning of the situation (Gross, 2002) and by promoting self-efficacy (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe activity view of inner speech
Manrique, F. M., & Vicente, A. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00232 · Cited by 40
“Consider the example of an athlete telling herself motivating words (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
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The intricacies of verbalizations, gestures, and game outcome using sequential analysis
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“Recently, Jeong (2012) proposed that sequential analysis would enable researchers to model patterns of cognitive processes observed in training or competition.”
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“Alternatively, the influence of motivational self-talk on EEG frontal asymmetry might be clearer if researchers incorporated gross motor skills into their studies, for which this type of self-talk has been demonstrated to be more effective (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
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“This postulation has received partial support in subsequent studies (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis, & Zourbanos, 2004) and the meta-analysis (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
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“This effect size was estimated considering the effect size identified in the meta-analysis (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011) for studies where fine tasks requiring attention were used and self-talk training was implemented.”
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“While meta-analyses involving athlete self-talk and athletic performance yield small correlations nearly identical to what was found here (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), the practical value of self-talk is highly emphasized as a differentiator between very good and great athletic performance (Gee,…”
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“In contrast to the vast amount of studies indicating that self-talk interventions have a positive e ff ect on sport performance (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), this review revealed only six studies involving a self-talk intervention on a ff ective processes.”
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“Hence, it was revealed in the studies conducted that self-talk and imagination increased performance and facilitated learning (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011; Beauchamp et al., 2002; Grushko et al., 2016).”
Metacognitive Confidence Can Increase but Also Decrease Performance in Academic Settings
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“This initial induction was based on extensive literature on sport performance showing that what athletes say to themselves prior to or during performance can influence their performance outcome (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011; Tod et al., 2011; Van Raalte et al., 2016).”
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Effects of a strategic self-talk intervention on attention functions
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., Papaioannou, A., Morres, I. D., & Theodorakis, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2021.1963304 · Cited by 23
“A meta-analysis of the relevant studies (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011) has revealed a moderate e ff ect size ( d = .48).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKim, J., Kwon, J. H., Kim, E. J., Kim, E. J., Kim, H. E., Kyeong, S.-H., & Kim, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-94328-9 · Cited by 41
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Cooper, K. B., Wilson, M., & Jones, M. I. (2020) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2020.1735574 · Cited by 23
“…approach rather than a group-based approach, because the meaning associated with a specific self-talk strategy is idiosyncratic (Hardy, 2006) and prior systematic reviews of strategic self-talk (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011) have called for research designs to be targeted to the end user.”
BackgroundThe Effects of Overt Head Movements on Physical Performance After Positive Versus Negative Self-Talk
Horcajo, J., Paredes, B., Higuero, G., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2019) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2018-0208 · Cited by 22
Self-leadership strategies and career success: insight on sports organizations
Megheirkouni, M. (2018) · Sport Business and Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/sbm-02-2018-0006 · Cited by 25
Inner speech and “pure” Thought – do we think in language?
Kompa, N. A. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-023-00678-w · Cited by 21
“If that were so, one could venture to guess that if we engage in silent self-talk, we do so merely for reasons of social etiquette, as audible self-talk is commonly frowned upon (cf. Hatzigeorgiadis et al. 2011 for a discussion of overt and covert self-talk in sports performance).”
Kim, T. Y., & Kim, J. (2021) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2021.02.003 · Cited by 23
The Sources and Maintenance of Professional Golfers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Valiante, G., & Morris, D. B. (2013) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.27.2.130 · Cited by 21
Strengthening the assessment of self‐talk in sports through a multi‐method approach
Muynck, G.-J. D., Soenens, B., Delrue, J., Comoutos, N., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.13609 · Cited by 21
The effects of a self-talk intervention on elementary students’ motor task performance
Comoutos, N., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Bardas, D., & Theodorakis, Y. (2012) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2012.693487 · Cited by 21
Self-citationWhat do youth tennis athletes say to themselves? Observed and self-reported self-talk on the court
Thibodeaux, J., & Winsler, A. (2018) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.06.006 · Cited by 20
“After such interventions, players are often asked to report what phrases they used during the experiment (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Closer Look at How Self-Talk Influences Skilled Basketball Performance
Abdoli, B., Hardy, J., Riyahi, J. F., & Farsi, A. (2018) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2016-0162 · Cited by 35
Georgakaki, S. K., & Karakasidou, E. (2017) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2017.85044 · Cited by 20
Murdoch, E. M., Lines, R. L. J., Crane, M. F., Ntoumanis, N., Brade, C. J., Quested, E., Ayers, J., & Gucciardi, D. F. (2021) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2021.1977974 · Cited by 19
“…evidence on the e ff ectiveness of individual categories of stress regulation interventions such as mindfulness (Bühl-mayer et al., 2017), self-talk (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), slow-paced breathing realised with heart rate variability biofeedback (Lehrer et al., 2020), and relaxation (Pelka…”
BackgroundInfluentialGnacinski, S. L., Meyer, B. B., Cornell, D. J., Mims, J., Zalewski, K. R., & Ebersole, K. T. (2015) · International journal of exercise science · doi:10.70252/fcdc4147 · Cited by 19
Basset, F. A., Kelly, L. P., Hohl, R., & Kaushal, N. (2022) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13980 · Cited by 18
Strategic Self-Talk Assists Basketball Free Throw Performance Under Conditions of Physical Exertion
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Charachousi, F., Latinjak, A. T., Comoutos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.892046 · Cited by 23
Self-citationThe Psychology of Athletic Endeavor
Beauchamp, M. R., Kingstone, A. F., & Ntoumanis, N. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-012722-045214 · Cited by 25
Slimani, M., & Chéour, F. (2016) · Sport Sciences for Health · doi:10.1007/s11332-016-0267-z · Cited by 19
Latinjak, A. T., Masó, M., & Comoutos, N. (2017) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2017-0047 · Cited by 18
The Knowledge Map of Sport and Exercise Psychology: An Integrative Perspective
Latinjak, A. T., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661824 · Cited by 18
Self-citationSpanish adaptation and validation of the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports
Latinjak, A. T., Viladrich, C., Alcaraz, S., & Torregrossa, M. (2015) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2015.1055287 · Cited by 18
“Moreover, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2011) pointed out that the effects of self-talk on motivation, attention and anxiety might serve as an underlying mechanism of the relationship between self-talk and performance.”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychological Skills Used by Sport Psychology Consultants to Improve Their Consulting
Filion, S., Munroe‐Chandler, K. J., & Loughead, T. M. (2019) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2019.1647475 · Cited by 17
Ζetou, E., Vernadakıs, N., & Bebetsos, E. (2014) · Journal of Physical Education and Sport · Cited by 17
Latinjak, A. T. (2016) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2016-0044 · Cited by 17
Acquisition of the Long Jump Skill, Using Different Learning Techniques
Panteli, F., Tsolakis, C. K., Efthimiou, D., & Smirniotou, A. S. (2013) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.27.1.40 · Cited by 17
“Taking into consideration that the acquisition of a novel task, requiring coordination and accuracy, depends heavily on concentration (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), as well as that young, beginner athletes are characterized by limited attentional and retentional subprocesses (SteMarie, Clark, & Latimer, 2002), we des…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialValence, form, and content of self-talk predict sport type and level of performance
Nedergaard, J., Christensen, M. S., & Wallentin, M. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103102 · Cited by 14
Raalte, J. L. V., Vincent, A., Dickens, Y. L., & Brewer, B. W. (2019) · Sport Exercise and Performance Psychology · doi:10.1037/spy0000172 · Cited by 16
Metadata
- Authors
- Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Thessaly (GR)
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
- Corresponding author
- Hatzigeorgiadis, Antonis
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-07
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 348-356
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2057172229
- Cited by
- 361
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 2.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Thessaly Institutional Repository (University of Thessaly) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Sports and Physical Education Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
- Keywords
- self-talk, athletic performance, instructional self-talk, motivational self-talk, motor skill learning, task novelty, moderators of intervention effectiveness
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