Computational methods for chromosome-scale haplotype reconstruction
Open accessAbstract
High-quality chromosome-scale haplotype sequences of diploid genomes, polyploid genomes, and metagenomes provide important insights into genetic variation associated with disease and biodiversity. However, whole-genome short read sequencing does not yield haplotype information spanning whole chromosomes directly. Computational assembly of shorter haplotype fragments is required for haplotype reconstruction, which can be challenging owing to limited fragment lengths and high haplotype and repeat variability across genomes. Recent advancements in long-read and chromosome-scale sequencing technologies, alongside computational innovations, are improving the reconstruction of haplotypes at the level of whole chromosomes. Here, we review recent and discuss methodological progress and perspectives in these areas.
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Pstools reported slightly lower switch error rates than Yak but comparable Hamming error rates.
“Pstools reported slightly lower switch error rates than Yak but comparable Hamming error rates (Supplementary Fig. 2).”
From A draft human pangenome reference. (2023) · cites this paper as [23]
The Diploid haplotype assembly section describes pstools as a phased-scaffolding method but gives no comparison with Yak. Searches for Yak and for the claimed switch- and Hamming-error comparison found no passage addressing those results in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)
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A haplotype-led approach to increase the precision of wheat breeding
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Human Genome Assembly in 100 MinutesPreprint
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Unzipping haplotypes in diploid and polyploid genomes
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Centromere studies in the era of ‘telomere-to-telomere’ genomics
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Probabilistic single-individual haplotyping
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Assembly and annotation of an Ashkenazi human reference genome
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Self-citationDirect chromosome-length haplotyping by single-cell sequencingPreprint
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The string decomposition problem and its applications to centromere analysis and assembly
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Linked read technology for assembling large complex and polyploid genomes
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Multiple haplotype-resolved genomes reveal population patterns of gene and protein diplotypes
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Next generation sequencing technologies
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Self-citationNext Generation Sequencing and Sequence Assembly
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Reconstruction of clone- and haplotype-specific cancer genome karyotypes from bulk tumor samplesPreprint
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Centromere 17 copy number gain reflects chromosomal instability in breast cancer
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On the complexity of haplotyping a microbial community
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Haplotype Threading: Accurate Polyploid Phasing from Long ReadsPreprint
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Self-citationTowards a More Accurate Error Model for BioNano Optical Maps
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Construction of JRG (Japanese reference genome) with single-molecule real-time sequencing
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Joint Analysis of Long and Short Reads Enables Accurate Estimates of Microbiome Complexity
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A Guided Tour to Computational Haplotyping
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Sex chromosome evolution: life, death and repetitive DNA
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Reconstruction of clone- and haplotype-specific cancer genome karyotypes from bulk tumor samplesPreprint
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The haplotypes of various TNF related genes associated with scleritis in Chinese Han
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Scalable Genomic Data Management System on the Cloud
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De novo and haplotype assembly of polyploid genomes
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Moving Towards Third‐Generation Sequencing Technologies
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Human nuclear mitochondrial sequences (NumtS)
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A QPTAS for Gapless MECPreprint
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
A draft human pangenome reference.
Liao, W.-W., Asri, M., Ebler, J., Doerr, D., Haukness, M., Hickey, G., Lu, S., Lucas, J. K., Monlong, J., Abel, H. J., et al. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05896-x · Cited by 1,129 · see citing works
“We also calculated phase accuracy using Pstools (Garg, 2020, 2021), which uses Hi-C sequence data of the sample not used in creating the assembly.”
MethodSelf-citationSemi-automated assembly of high-quality diploid human reference genomes
Jarvis, E. D., Formenti, G., Rhie, A., Guarracino, A., Yang, C., Wood, J., Tracey, A., Thibaud-Nissen, F., Vollger, M. R., Porubsky, D., et al. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05325-5 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“To date, three methods have successfully used Hi-C, including FALCON Phase 23 , hifiasm (Hi-C) 59 and pstools 61 , and another has used Strand-seq 58 to generate maternal and paternal phased long-read-based human genome assemblies with fewer switch errors, including on HG002.”
MethodSelf-citationFeatures and applications of haplotypes in crop breeding
Bhat, J. A., Yu, D., Bohra, A., Ganie, S. A., & Varshney, R. K. (2021) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-021-02782-y · Cited by 182 · see citing works
LongPhase: an ultra-fast chromosome-scale phasing algorithm for small and large variants
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“In this case, specialized assemblers similar to tools that haplotype the human genome 123 are required to assemble contigs from each strain.”
Vences, M., Patmanidis, S., Schmidt, J.-C., Matschiner, M., Miralles, A., & Renner, S. S. (2024) · Bioinformatics Advances · doi:10.1093/bioadv/vbae083 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“With the rise of high-throughput sequencing, haplotype analysis has shifted from the analysis and visualization of single-locus networks to chromosome-scale haplotype reconstruction (Garg 2021).”
BackgroundGenomics‐assisted breeding for designing salinity‐smart future crops
Raza, A., Zaman, Q. U., Shabala, S. N., Tester, M. A., Munns, R., Hu, Z., & Varshney, R. K. (2025) · Plant Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1111/pbi.70104 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“…and superior GS models will significantly aid in fast-tracking the supply of superior breeding lines with SST. Haplotypes, combinations of alleles inherited together on similar Chr, play a critical role in plant breeding for designing advanced crop varieties (Bhat et al ., 2021; Garg, 2021).”
InfluentialGenomic and modern biotechnological strategies for enhancing salt tolerance in crops
Yuan, J., Cao, H., Qin, W., Yang, S., Zhang, D., Zhu, L., Song, H., & Zhang, Q. (2024) · New Crops · doi:10.1016/j.ncrops.2024.100057 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
A Draft Human Pangenome ReferencePreprint
Liao, W., Asri, M., Ebler, J., Doerr, D., Haukness, M., Hickey, G., Lu, S., Lucas, J., Monlong, J., Abel, H., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.07.09.499321 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationCurrent advancements in fungal engineering technologies for Sustainable Development Goals
Garg, S., Kim, M., & Romero-Suárez, D. (2024) · Trends in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.tim.2024.11.001 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationGenomics-assisted speed breeding for crop improvement: present and future
Ćeran, M., Miladinović, D., Đorđević, V., Trkulja, D., Radanović, A., Glogovac, S., & Kondić‐Špika, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems · doi:10.3389/fsufs.2024.1383302 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Strain Identification and Quantitative Analysis in Microbial Communities
Ghazi, A. R., Münch, P. C., Chen, D., Jensen, J., & Huttenhower, C. (2022) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167582 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Haplotype-based breeding: A new insight in crop improvement
Sivabharathi, R. C., Rajagopalan, V. R., Suresh, R., Sudha, M., KARTHIKEYAN, G., Jayakanthan, M., & Raveendran, M. (2024) · Plant Science · doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2024.112129 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
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“These alleles of various polymorphisms existing on a segment of chromosome are inherited together with a minimum chance of contemporary recombination (Garg 2021; Sehgal et al.”
BackgroundStrainline: full-length de novo viral haplotype reconstruction from noisy long reads
Luo, X., Kang, X., & Schönhuth, A. (2022) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/s13059-021-02587-6 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Complex genome assembly based on long-read sequencing
Zhang, T., Zhou, J., Gao, W., Jia, Y., Wei, Y., & Wang, G. (2022) · Briefings in Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bib/bbac305 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Sequencing and Assembly of Polyploid Genomes
Wang, Y., Yu, J., Jiang, M., Lei, W., Zhang, X., & Tang, H. (2023) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-2561-3_23 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
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Li, K., Chen, R., Abudoukayoumu, A., Wei, Q., Ma, Z., Wang, Z., Hao, Q., & Huang, J. (2024) · Horticulture Research · doi:10.1093/hr/uhae071 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“For highly heterozygous diploid and polyploid organisms, a haplotype-phased genome represents the ultimate goal of dissecting genomes and allows breeders to capture the effect of allelic gene function [8].”
BackgroundSingh, C., Yadav, S., Khare, V., Gupta, V., Patial, M., Kumar, S., V, Mishra, C. N., Tyagi, B. S., Gupta, A. K., Sharma, A. K., et al. (2025) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants14071053 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Towards routine chromosome-scale haplotype-resolved reconstruction in cancer genomics
Garg, S. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36689-5 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationGenotype error biases trio-based estimates of haplotype phase accuracy
Browning, B. L., & Browning, S. R. (2022) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2022.04.019 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Jang, M., Cho, H. J., Park, Y.-S., Lee, H., Bae, E., Jung, S., Jin, H., Woo, J., Park, E., Kim, S.-J., et al. (2024) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-024-01944-y · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Xie, H., Li, W., Guo, Y., Su, X., Chen, K., Wen, L., & Tang, F. (2023) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkad532 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Ramos, L., & Antunes, A. (2022) · Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2022.110277 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Lou, H., Gao, Y., Xie, B., Wang, Y., Zhang, H., Shi, M., Ma, S., Zhang, X., Liu, C., & Xu, S. (2022) · Cell Systems · doi:10.1016/j.cels.2022.01.006 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Strain dynamics of contaminating bacteria modulate the yield of ethanol biorefineries
Lino, F. S. D. O., Garg, S., Li, S. S., Misiakou, M.-A., Kang, K., da Costa, B. L. V., Beyer-Pedersen, T. S.-A., Giacon, T. G., Basso, T. O., Panagiotou, G., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-49683-2 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
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“On the other hand more and more approaches desire phased assemblies, where both homologous chromosome sets are part of the assembly [192, 193].”
Genomic variations and epigenomic landscape of the Medaka Inbred Kiyosu-Karlsruhe (MIKK) panel
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TopoQual polishes circular consensus sequencing data and accurately predicts quality scores
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Can long-read sequencing tackle the barriers, which the next-generation could not? A review
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“Haplotypes within a diploid chromosome are determined by fi nding a partitioning of reads to two sets, one for each haplotype, such that the reads within subsets have a minimal number of errors compared to a consensus [106].”
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“Strategies and tools to obtain haplotype-resolved assemblies have been reviewed in detail elsewhere [7, 8].”
BackgroundPAnno: A pharmacogenomics annotation tool for clinical genomic testing
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“This is mainly due to the limitation of NGS itself in identifying repetitive sequences, etc., which affects the fi nal haplotype resolution (Mantere et al., 2019; Garg, 2021).”
BackgroundNew developments in biotechnology applied to microorganisms
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“…the combination of PacBio HiFi sequencing, which results in reads > 15 Kb with error rates of ∼ 1%, Hi-C, which produces short reads capturing 3-dimensional chromatin organization, and novel computational pipelines allows the generation of high-resolution genomes (Garg 2021; Rhie et al. 2021).”
Geometric deep learning framework for de novo genome assemblyPreprint
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“For more information about the computational meth-ods for genome assembly, readers can refer to Garg (2021) and Garg et al. (2022).”
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“A haplotype is a physical grouping of genomic variants from multiple genetic loci on the same chromosome that are inherited as a unit that can encompass two or more SNP alleles [20].”
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“Heterozygoussingle-individualassembliesare more challenging to construct, relative to fully homozygous individuals (Garg, 2021).”
Graphasing: phasing diploid genome assembly graphs with single-cell strand sequencing
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“As suggested by (35), we considered ConStrains (36), StrainFinder (37), Gretel (38) and DESMAN (28) as currently leading tools.”
BackgroundMethodEditorial: Long-read sequencing—Pitfalls, benefits and success stories
Wohlers, I., Garg, S., & Hehir‐Kwa, J. Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.1114542 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Already, long-read sequencing can be used to reach an unprecedented genetic resolution (Garg, 2021), e.g. by covering previously inaccessible genomic regions or entire RNA transcripts in individual reads.”
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“However, the accurate assembly of viral contigs containing large repetitive regions remains an unresolved challenge due to the diversity of herpesvirus populations and the error rates of existing long-read technologies (114).”
Haplotype breeding: fast-track the crop improvements
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“A haplotype refers to a specific combination of DNA markers or nucleotides that are inherited together from different regions within the same locus of a chromosome (Lu et al. 2010; Garg 2021).”
A Pangenome Approach to Detect and Genotype TE Insertion Polymorphisms
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GreenHill: a de novo chromosome-level scaffolding and phasing tool using Hi-C
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Bioinformatics for Plant Genetics and Breeding Research
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Advances in haplotype phasing and genotype imputation
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trioPhaser: using Mendelian inheritance logic to improve genomic phasing of trios
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“Phase can be estimated with computational methods that rely on haplotype evidence from multiple sources; different software programs may support one or more of the following sources: haplotype reference panel, sequence reads, and/or familial genotypes [1, 5–7].”
Improving lab-of-origin prediction of genetically engineered plasmids via deep metric learning
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“One future direction of work would be to adapt the model for diploid features 34 .”
BackgroundZhou, T., Ma, S., Zhao, Y., Guo, D., Wang, H., Kuang, M., & Li, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.918379 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Complete sequence information of eccDNA will be obtained by long-read sequencing, and structural variation can be observed to analyze the differential functions of eccDNA (Garg, 2021).”
Targeted sequencing and iterative assembly of near-complete genomes
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“The capacity to obtain high quality and even complete telomere-to-telomere (T2T) assemblies for large eukaryotic genomes is transforming our understanding of genome architecture, variation and evolution 1 – 3 .”
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“…scale haplotype ‐ resolved assemblies, the inter - actions between variants in regulator elements can be more clearly understood (Tewhey et al., 2011) as well as the interplay of the evolutionary processes that a ff ect genetic variation, such as recombination, mutation, and selection (Garg, 2021).”
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GRAMEP: an alignment-free method based on the maximum entropy principle for identifying SNPs
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Genetic variation in the OPN gene affects milk composition in Chinese Holstein cows
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A complete pedigree-based graph workflow for rare candidate variant analysisPreprint
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“One tool, known asWHdenovo, can apply pedigree information and long-sequence reads to enhance the construction of sample-specific assemblies that can resolve potential genotyping errors in this workflow (Garg et al. 2020; Garg 2021).”
MethodNavarro, A. T., Bourke, P. M., Weg, E. W. V. D., Clot, C. R., Arens, P. F. P., Finkers, R., & Maliepaard, C. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2023.1049988 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Multiple tools have been developed to produce long-range haplotypes using short reads, long reads or a combination of both (Garg, 2021).”
BackgroundMethodAutomated filtering of genome-wide large deletions through an ensemble deep learning framework
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The Telomere-Telomerase System Is Detrimental to Health at High-Altitude
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SpLitteR: diploid genome assembly using TELL-Seq linked-reads and assembly graphs
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“For large genomes and metagenomes, long high-fi delity (HiFi) reads proved to be useful in generating highly-accurate and contiguous assemblies ( Nurk et al., 2020 ; Sha fi n et al., 2020 ; Kolmogorov et al., 2020 ; Cheng et al., 2021 ; Nurk et al., 2022 ; Rautiainen et al., 2023 ; Garg, 2021 ).”
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Genomics-Assisted Breeding for Fodder Quality Improvement in Forage Sorghum
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“…read depth, B-allele frequency (BAF) information, and haplotype phasing to the CNV analysis has been pivotal in high-impact variant prioritization [3, 4], and enables the identification of: i) de novo CNVs – i.e. mutations present only in the proband, but not in either parent [5], ii) homozygous…”
Pan-genomics of polyploid crops: from complexity to breeding
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“The computational requirements also increase substantially with higher ploidy levels, as the number of possible haplotypes grows exponentially (Garg, 2021).”
Characteristics and potential functional effects of long insertions in Asian butternuts
Chen, Y., Miao, Y., Bai, W., Lin, K., & Pang, E. (2022) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/s12864-022-08961-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“representation is one major challenge [9] though there are methods such as chromosome-scale haplotype reconstruction [14] to account for this.”
MethodStatistical and Computational Methods for Microbial Strain Analysis
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BLR: a flexible pipeline for haplotype analysis of multiple linked-read technologies
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“Repetitive regions remain a challenge for accurate phasing ( 7 ).”
Plant sperm cell sequencing for genome phasing and determination of meiotic crossover points
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Revisiting the Genomic Approaches in the Cereals and the Path Forward
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Haplotype-Assisted Breeding in Rice
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HaploMaker: An improved algorithm for rapid haplotype assembly of genomic sequences
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“For example, the algorithm could be used to assemble haplotypes for genomes from tetraploid and hexaploid species, such as wheat, as long as there are separate reference sequences for each of the homoeologous copies of the chromosomes [1].”
InfluentialFilling gaps of genome scaffolds via probabilistic searching optical maps against assembly graph
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“The study [6] provides an elaborated review on the methodological progresses and perspectives in the integration of short-range and long-range information for improving assembly contiguity.”
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“A haplotype is a combination of alleles for different polymorphisms (such as SNPs, insertions/deletions and other markers or variants) on the same chromosome and region, inherited with minimal chance of recombination (Stram et al. 2017; Garg et al. 2021).”
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Review on Advancement of AI in Cell Engineering and Molecular Biology
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Exploring standing genetic variation for barley leaf rust resistance in Australian breeding panel
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“A haplotype-based association mapping has proven effective for identifying genomic loci and candidate genes underlying quantitative traits (Abed and Belzile 2019; Hamazaki and Iwata 2020; Garg 2021; Bhat et al. 2021).”
Trait Discovery in the Post-NGS Era
Rathore, M., Jan, F., Aggarwal, N., Bashir, M., Prasad, S. H., Khan, M. A., Sofi, P. A., Chitikineni, A., Saini, D. K., & Mir, R. R. (2026) · Sustainability Sciences in Asia and Africa · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-5109-5_12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
HAT: haplotype assembly tool using short and error-prone long reads
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“On the other hand, in polyploid genomes, other haplotypes may have the same or different alleles (Garg, 2021).”
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Pairwise comparative analysis of six haplotype assembly methods based on users’ experience
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“However, there remain different challenges in haplotype assembly for repetitive regions, in scaling haplotype reconstruction efforts for routine applications, in validation, in benchmarking, and in annotation [7].”
BackgroundAsmMix: an efficient haplotype-resolved hybrid de novo genome assembling pipeline
Liu, C., Wu, P., Wu, X., Zhao, X., Chen, F., Cheng, X., Zhu, H., Wang, O., & Xu, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2024.1421565
“Hi-C data provides information about the spatial organization of the genome, allowing for the analysis of long-range haplotyping and scaffolding at the chromosome level (Garg et al., 2021).”
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Genomics-Assisted Breeding: A Revolutionary Approach for Sugarcane Development
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Methods for Chromosome-Scale Haplotype Reconstruction
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Self-citationDirect inference of haplotypes from sequencing data
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“But more than two haplotypes may exist at any given chromosomal region when genotyping polyploid genomes or a mixture of diploid cell populations, which is common for sequencing tumor tissues contaminated with normal cells (Garg 2021).”
Local Haplotyping Analysis for Flowering Time in Soybean Using Crosshap
Mohamedikbal, S., Upadhyaya, S. R., Bestry, M., Marsh, J. I., & Edwards, D. (2025) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-4820-9_6
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- Authors
- Garg, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Garg, Shilpa
- ORCID
- Garg, Shilpa
- Venue
- Genome Biology
- Published
- 2021-04-12
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 101-101
- ISSN
- 1465-6906 (ISSN-L)
- 1474-760X
- PMC
- PMC8040228
- OpenAlex
- W3156261638
- Cited by
- 116
- References
- 154
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 6
- FWCI
- 2.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Genome biology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Phylogenetic Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Chromosomal and Genetic Variations
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genomic variations and chromosomal abnormalities
- Keywords
- haplotype reconstruction, haplotype assembly, diploid genome, polyploid genomes, metagenome, long-read sequencing, repetitive regions, genetic variation
- MeSH terms
- Chromosomes, Diploidy, Haplotypes, Humans, Polyploidy, Sequence Analysis, DNA, Computational Biology, Genomics, Metagenome, Metagenomics, High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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