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Cited by 120Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchHuman-Animal Interaction StudiesPsychotherapy Techniques and Applications

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 70 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 51 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Effects of therapeutic horseback riding on post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans

Open access
Johnson, Rebecca A., Albright, David L., Marzolf, James R., Bibbo, Jessica L., Yaglom, Hayley D., Crowder, Sandra M., Carlisle, Gretchen K., Willard, Amy, Russell, Cynthia L., Grindler, Karen, Osterlind, Steven, Wassman, Marita, Harms, Nathan·2018·Military Medical Research
DOI 10.1186/s40779-018-0149-6PMC PMC5774121
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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Large numbers of post-deployment U.S. veterans are diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and/or traumatic brain injury (TBI), leading to an urgent need for effective interventions to reduce symptoms and increase veterans' coping. PTSD includes anxiety, flashbacks, and emotional numbing. The symptoms increase health care costs for stress-related illnesses and can make veterans' civilian life difficult. METHODS: We used a randomized wait-list controlled design with repeated measures of U.S. military veterans to address our specific aim to test the efficacy of a 6-week therapeutic horseback riding (THR) program for decreasing PTSD symptoms and increasing coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, social and emotional loneliness. Fifty-seven participants were recruited and 29 enrolled in the randomized trial. They were randomly assigned to either the horse riding group (n = 15) or a wait-list control group (n = 14). The wait-list control group experienced a 6-week waiting period, while the horse riding group began THR. The wait-list control group began riding after 6 weeks of participating in the control group. Demographic and health history information was obtained from all the participants. PTSD symptoms were measured using the standardized PTSD Checklist-Military Version (PCL-M). The PCL-M as well as other instruments including, The Coping Self Efficacy Scale (CSES), The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) and The Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults-short version (SELSA) were used to access different aspects of individual well-being and the PTSD symptoms. RESULTS: Participants had a statistically significant decrease in PTSD scores after 3 weeks of THR (P ≤ 0.01) as well as a statistically and clinically significant decrease after 6 weeks of THR (P ≤ 0.01). Logistic regression showed that participants had a 66.7% likelihood of having lower PTSD scores at 3 weeks and 87.5% likelihood at 6 weeks. Under the generalized linear model(GLM), our ANOVA findings for the coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social and emotional loneliness did not reach statistical significance. The results for coping self-efficacy and emotion regulation trended in the predicted direction. Results for emotional loneliness were opposite the predicted direction. Logistic regression provided validation that outcome effects were caused by riding longer. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that THR may be a clinically effective intervention for alleviating PTSD symptoms in military veterans.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a randomized wait-list controlled trial of U.S. military veterans with PTSD or PTSD/TBI, a 6-week therapeutic horseback riding program was associated with statistically and clinically significant reductions in PTSD symptoms. Other outcomes—coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social/emotional loneliness—did not reach statistical significance, though some trends moved in predicted directions.

Key findings

  • PTSD symptoms decreased significantly after 3 weeks of THR (P ≤ 0.01) and after 6 weeks (P ≤ 0.01); mean improvements were 6 points at 3 weeks and 13 points at 6 weeks, meeting the paper’s cited 5-point response and 10-point clinically meaningful thresholds.
  • Logistic regression showed a 66.7% likelihood of lower PTSD scores at 3 weeks and 87.5% at 6 weeks; overall participants had an 81.8% likelihood of improvement. 18/23 (78%) showed a decrease from baseline to 3 weeks, and 18/19 (94.74%) from baseline to 6 weeks.
  • Coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social/emotional loneliness did not reach statistical significance; CSES and DERS trended in the predicted direction, while SELSA trended opposite the predicted direction (increased loneliness).
  • Instrument internal consistency was acceptable: PCL-M = 0.737, CSES = 0.868, DERS = 0.831, SELSA = 0.788.

Methods

  • Randomized wait-list controlled design with repeated measures; veterans with PTSD or PTSD/TBI participated in a 6-week THR program once per week, while the wait-list control group waited 6 weeks and then rode. Inclusion criteria included age ≥18, no longer active duty, weight ≤220 lb, able to walk 25 ft without assistance, and willingness to ride.
  • Measures included the PTSD Checklist-Military Version (PCL-M), Coping Self Efficacy Scale (CSES), Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), and Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults-short version (SELSA), plus demographic and health history questionnaires.
  • Analysis used repeated measures ANOVA, t-tests on difference scores, and logistic regression in SPSS Version 24, with significance set at P = 0.05. The abstract reports 57 recruited and 29 enrolled/randomized (15 riding, 14 wait-list); the methods/results describe 38 enrolled, 29 participating in THR, and 29 subjects with complete data for analysis.

Limitations

  • Paper-stated: small sample size limited power to detect changes in dependent variables; no longitudinal follow-up; the 6-week THR program may have been too short; recruitment was limited to veterans treated at the approving VA; travel, scheduling, weather, and staffing logistics complicated implementation; components of THR (e.g., grooming, staff interactions, driving, arena type) could not be isolated; selection bias exists because only veterans willing to ride enrolled; the SELSA may not capture spiritual/existential loneliness or experiential isolation.
  • Evident from the text: sample-flow numbers are inconsistent across the abstract and methods/results (e.g., 57 recruited vs. 38 enrolled vs. 29 analyzed; varying n’s across tables), and the wait-list conversion design creates repeated treatment data that complicate independence assumptions.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/s40779-018-0149-6

Cites

70 of 70 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Changes in coping self-efficacy and emotion regulation trended in the predicted direction.

    “However, and importantly, changes in the DERS (which measured emotion regulation) and CSES (which measured coping self-efficacy) scores were in the predicted direction.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “The results for coping self-efficacy and emotion regulation trended in the predicted direction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    PTSD symptoms significantly decreased between baseline and week 3 of THR.

    “Symptoms significantly decreased between baseline and week 3, F(1,17) = 10.678, P = 0.005”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Participants had a statistically significant decrease in PTSD scores after 3 weeks of THR (P ≤ 0.01)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Eighteen out of 19 veterans (94.74%) showed a decrease in PTSD symptoms between baseline and week 6.

    “while 18 out of 19 (94.74%) showed a decrease between baseline and week 6.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    PTSD symptoms significantly decreased between week 3 and week 6 of THR.

    “and also between week 3 and week 6 of riding, F(1,17) = 8.750, P = 0.009.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Logistic regression showed participants had an 87.5% likelihood of having lower PTSD scores at 6 weeks.

    “and 87.5% likelihood at 6 weeks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 41
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 46
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    There were no statistically significant changes in coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social and emotional loneliness over time.

    “There were no statistically significant changes in the other primary and secondary outcome variables over time (i.e., coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation [mood], and perceived loneliness).”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Under the generalized linear model(GLM), our ANOVA findings for the coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social and emotional loneliness did not reach statistical significance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Internal consistency Cronbach alpha values for the study instruments were: PCL-M = 0.737, CSES = 0.868, DERS = 0.831, SELSA = 0.788.

    “The values for each instrument were as follows: PCL-M = 0.737, CSES = 0.868, DERS = 0.831, SELSA = 0.788.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    No phone calls were received addressing injuries or pains.

    “No phone calls were received addressing injuries or pains; the phone number was exclusively employed regarding scheduling issues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Changes in social and emotional loneliness were opposite the predicted direction, indicating increased loneliness.

    “Changes in the SELSA were opposite the predicted direction (indicating increased loneliness).”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Results for emotional loneliness were opposite the predicted direction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The shorter riding group (1-3 weeks) showed a decline between the first and second measurement, but then showed a marked increase at the next measurement.

    “the shorter riding group (1–3 weeks) did show a decline between the first and second measurement, but then showed a marked increase at the next measurement”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    There was no change in CSES scores during the control period, but there was a positive change during the riding period.

    “The fact that there was no change in these scores during the control period, but there was a positive change during the riding period would support this notion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Participants' mean improvements in PTSD symptoms were 6 points at the 3-week data point and 13 points at the 6-week data point while riding.

    “Our findings show that our participants’ mean improvements in PTSD symptoms were 6 points at the 3-week data point and 13 points at the 6-week data point while riding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    For PTSD symptoms, our findings demonstrated that 3 weeks was an effective intervention length and that even more improvement was noted at 6 weeks.

    “However, for PTSD symptoms, our findings demonstrated that 3 weeks was an effective intervention length and that even more improvement was noted at 6 weeks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Our findings regarding social and emotional loneliness were not statistically significant, and the trends were not in the predicted decreasing direction.

    “Our findings regarding social and emotional loneliness were not statistically significant, and the trends were not in the predicted decreasing direction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Our findings for coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social and emotional loneliness did not reach statistical or clinical significance.

    “Our findings for coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, and social and emotional loneliness did not reach statistical or clinical significance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Globally, the highest level of PTSD symptoms was recorded at baseline, then there was a drop at 3 weeks of riding and a still further drop at 6 weeks of riding.

    “Globally, the highest level of PTSD symptoms was recorded at baseline, then there was a drop at 3 weeks of riding and a still further drop at 6 weeks of riding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Interactions between the veterans and the riding center and study staff were positive.

    “Interactions between the veterans and the riding center and study staff were positive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    We did find statistical and clinical significance in lowering PTSD symptom levels.

    “Nevertheless, we did find statistical and clinical significance in lowering PTSD symptom levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Those who rode for more sessions (4-6 weeks) evidenced much larger declines in PTSD scores than those who rode for fewer sessions, and the decline continued with each measurement.

    “Those who rode for more sessions (4–6 weeks) evidenced much larger declines in PTSD scores than those who rode for fewer sessions, and the decline continued with each measurement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The participants expressed sadness that the THR program was ending.

    “The participants expressed sadness that the THR program was ending.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study had approval of the VA Research and Development Committee, the University of Missouri Health Sciences IRB, and the Animal Care and Use Committee.

    “The study had the approval of the VA Research and Development Committee at the Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, the University of Missouri Health Sciences Institutional Review Board and the Animal Care and Use Committee of the University.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The DERS has strong internal consistency (0.93) and tested well against the Negative Mood Regulation Scale (−0.69).

    “The DERS was found to have a strong internal consistency (0.93) and tested well against the Negative Mood Regulation Scale (−0.69) [63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Gratz KL, Roemer L. Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2004;26:41–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-008-9102-4 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Riding center staff were not aware of who had been assigned to either group.

    “Riding center staff were not aware of who had been assigned to either group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    All participants provided written informed consent, and their primary health care providers gave written assent.

    “All participants provided written informed consent, and their primary health care providers gave written assent for their participation in the THR program.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The PCL-M has strong internal consistency (0.94-0.97), test-retest reliability (0.97 over 3 days), concurrent validity (0.77-0.93), and diagnostic efficiency with sensitivity 0.82 and specificity 0.84.

    “The PCL-M has been found to have strong internal consistency (0.94–0.97), test-retest reliability (0.97 over 3 days), concurrent validity (0.77–0.93), and diagnostic efficiency with a sensitivity of 0.82 and specificity of 0.84 [60].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Weathers FW, Litz BT, Herman DS, Huska JA, Keane TM. Psychometric properties of nine scoring rules for the clinician-administered post-traumatic stress disorder scale. Psychol Assess. 1999;11:124–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.2.124 . source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used a randomized wait-list controlled design with repeated measures.

    “We used a randomized wait-list controlled design with repeated measures of U.S. military veterans to address our specific aim to test the efficacy of a 6-week therapeutic horseback riding (THR) program for decreasing PTSD symptoms and increasing coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, social and emotional loneliness.”
    • Also stated in: § Statistical analysis · plain
      “The THR program was a randomized wait-list controlled design, in which participants rode a horse or were wait-listed for prescribed times.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The CSES has strong internal consistency (0.80-0.91) and test-retest reliability (0.40-0.80).

    “The instrument has strong internal consistency (0.80–0.91) and test-retest reliability (0.40–0.80) [62].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Chesney MA, Neilands TB, Chambers DB, Taylor JM, Folkman SA. Validity and reliability study of the coping self-efficacy scale. Brit J Health Psych. 2006;11:421–37. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910705X53155 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The SELSA has internal consistency ranging from 0.87-0.90, is significantly correlated with the UCLA-Loneliness Scale, and has been extensively tested against other established measures.

    “The scale was found to have an internal consistency ranging from 0.87–0.90, to be significantly correlated with the long-established UCLA-Loneliness Scale, and has been extensively tested against other established measures [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] DiTommaso E, Brannen C, Best LA. Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults. Educ Psychol Meas. 2004;64:99–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258450 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The PCL-M is a self-report measure of the 17 DSM-IV symptoms of PTSD asking about problems in response to stressful military experiences.

    “The PCL-M is a self-report measure of the 17 DSM-IV symptoms of PTSD asking about problems in response to “stressful military experiences” [59].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. PTSD Checklist-Military Version (PCL-M). 2011. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/screens/index.asp . Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    Relevant statistical assumptions (normality, linearity, homoscedasticity) were evaluated and found within acceptable parameters.

    “First, relevant assumptions were evaluated, including normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. Each were within acceptable parameters for analysis by variance statistics (i.e., ANOVA).”
    • Also stated in: § Statistical analysis · plain
      “For inferential analyses, relevant statistical assumptions (including normality, linearity, homoscedasticity) were evaluated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly assigned to either the riding group (n = 15) or a wait-list control group (n = 14) based on their identification number.

    “They were randomly assigned to either the riding group (n = 15) or a wait-list control group (n = 14) based on their identification number (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A case study of a 44-year-old veteran with a spinal cord injury demonstrated functional improvements, including increased regular PA, along with increases in self-esteem, self-control, and sense of independence.

    “One important case study of a 44-year-old veteran with a spinal cord injury demonstrated both functional improvements, including increased regular PA, along with increases in self-esteem, self-control, and sense of independence [49].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Asselin G, Ward C, Penning JH, Ramanujam S, Neri R. Therapeutic horse-back riding of a spinal cord injured veteran: a case study. Rehabil Nurs. 2012;37:270–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/rnj.027 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The individual relevance of THR components is perhaps less important than the complete THR experience because these components would not naturally occur in isolation.

    “their individual relevance is perhaps less important than the complete THR experience because these components would not naturally occur in isolation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Lanning and Krenek used a 24-week THR program in their study, which demonstrated improvements in veterans' physical health and depression levels.

    “Lanning and Krenek [51] used a 24-week THR program in their study, which demonstrated improvements in veterans’ physical health and depression levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] MacLean B. Equine-assisted therapy. J Rehabil Res Dev 2011;48(7): ix-xii. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.05.0085 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Veterans who participated in an equine assisted learning program reported that the program had very positive benefits on their PTSD symptoms and coping skills.

    “Veterans who participated in an equine assisted learning program (i.e., horses used to promote cognitive reframing and mindfulness) reported that the program had very positive benefits on their PTSD symptoms and coping skills [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Duncan CR, Critchley S, Marland J. Can praxis: a model of equine assisted learning (EAL) for PTSD. CMJ. 2014;14:64–9.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The CSES is a 26-item 11-point analogue scale assessing individuals' perceived ability to cope with life's challenges or threats.

    “The Coping Self Efficacy Scale (CSES) is a 26-item 11-point analogue scale assessing individuals’ perceived ability to cope with life’s challenges or threats by using problem-focused coping, stopping of unpleasant emotions and thoughts, and getting support from family and friends [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Bandura A. Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman; 1997.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Afflictive behavior between person and horse has been identified as a vital component of best practices in veterinary medicine when veterinarians work with horses.

    “Afflictive behavior between person and horse has been identified as a vital component of best practices in veterinary medicine when veterinarians work with horses [71].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Payne E, DeAraugo J, Bennett P, McGreevy P. Exploring the existence and potential underpinnings of dog-human and horse-human attachment bonds. Behav Process. 2016;125:114–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.10.004 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The anxiety associated with PTSD is known to induce veterans to avoid social contexts, leading to further isolation.

    “Moreover, the anxiety associated with PTSD is known to induce veterans to avoid social contexts, leading to further isolation [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] MacLean B. Equine-assisted therapy. J Rehabil Res Dev 2011;48(7): ix-xii. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.05.0085 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Our previous research demonstrated that emotionally stressed adult cancer patients who interacted quietly with a companion animal reported the visiting dog provided them comfort and was a confidant who made them happy and gave them energy.

    “Our previous research demonstrated that emotionally stressed adult cancer patients who interacted quietly with a companion animal reported the visiting dog provided them comfort and was a confidant who made them happy and gave them energy [73].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Johnson RA, Meadows RL, Haubner J, Sevedge K. Animal-assisted activity among patients with cancer: effects on mood, fatigue, self-perceived health, and sense of coherence. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2009;35:225–32. https://doi.org/10.1188/08.ONF.225-232 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationown data

    Accessibility to riding centers may be an issue for veterans who wish to participate in THR.

    “Accessibility to riding centers may be an issue for veterans who wish to participate in THR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The diminishing sample size may have limited our power to detect statistically significant changes in coping self-efficacy and emotion regulation.

    “We suspect that the diminishing sample size may have limited our power to detect statistically significant changes in these two variables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    THR sessions were conducted by a PATH-certified riding instructor and supervised by an occupational therapist.

    “The THR sessions were conducted by a PATH-certified riding instructor and supervised by an occupational therapist.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    We objectively studied the biophysiologic parameters at each phase of the THR process to better isolate the precise contribution of the actual time on the horse to the changes in PTSD levels.

    “What was done, however, was to objectively study the biophysiologic parameters at each phase of the THR process (e.g., driving to the stable) to better isolate the precise contribution of the actual time on the horse to the changes in the PTSD levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    We attempted to control for possible confounding effects of interpersonal interactions with riding center volunteers and study staff by instructing these individuals to minimize conversational initiation with the veterans.

    “We attempted to control for possible confounding effects of interpersonal interactions with riding center volunteers and study staff by instructing these individuals to minimize conversational initiation with the veterans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The exploratory study of a 24-week THR program lacked a control condition, making effectiveness of THR difficult to evaluate.

    “However, this exploratory study lacked a control condition, making effectiveness of THR difficult to evaluate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Lanning BA, Krenek N. Examining effects of equine-assisted activities to help combat veterans improve quality of life. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2013;50(8): xv-xxii. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2013.07.0159 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    THR may be a beneficial activity to reduce PTSD symptoms in veterans and also increase PA, reduce stress, enhance coping self-efficacy, and provide social support.

    “THR may be a beneficial activity to reduce PTSD symptoms in veterans and also increase PA, reduce stress, enhance coping self-efficacy, and provide social support.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The waitlist control design has been successfully employed in an equine program research with 131 adolescents in an 11-week equine facilitated learning program.

    “This waitlist control design has been successfully employed in an equine program research with 131 adolescents in an 11-week equine facilitated learning program [55].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] Pendry P, Carr AM, Smith AN, Roeter SM. Improving adolescent social competence and behavior: a randomized trial of an 11-week equine facilitated learning prevention program. J Primary Prevent. 2014;35:281–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-014-0350-7 . source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Veterans who took part in a THR program reported greater communication skills and self-awareness and self-esteem.

    “Veterans who took part in a THR program reported greater communication skills and self-awareness and self-esteem [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] MacLean B. Equine-assisted therapy. J Rehabil Res Dev 2011;48(7): ix-xii. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.05.0085 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    It is not realistic that each of these components could be studied separately in a randomized controlled trial.

    “It is not realistic that each of these components could be studied separately in a randomized controlled trial”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Older veterans, such as the majority in our sample, may have been diagnosed with PTSD decades ago; THR may be particularly promising for them.

    “Older veterans, such as the majority in our sample, may have been diagnosed with PTSD decades ago; THR may be particularly promising for them.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The DERS contains 36 items measuring the modulation of emotional arousal, awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotions, and ability to act in desired ways regardless of emotional state.

    “The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) contains 36 items measuring the “modulation of emotional arousal; awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotions; and ability to act in desired ways regardless of the emotional state” and is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (‘almost never’) to 5 (‘almost always’) [63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Gratz KL, Roemer L. Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2004;26:41–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-008-9102-4 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    THR has been implemented in adults and older adults with a variety of physical impairments as well as defined physical and psychological disorders.

    “THR has been implemented in adults and older adults with a variety of physical impairments [35–37] as well as defined physical and psychological disorders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [35] Araujo TB, Silva NA, Costa JN, Pereira MM, Safons MP. Effect of equine-assisted therapy on the postural balance of the elderly. Braz J Phy Ther. 2011;15:414–9. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011005000027 . source
    • cites [36] Farias-Tomaszewski S, Jenkins SR, Keller J. An evaluation of therapeutic horseback riding programs for adults with physical impairments. Ther Recreat J. 2001;35:250–7.
    • cites [37] Land G, Errington-Povalac E, Paul S. The effects of therapeutic riding on sitting posture in individuals with disabilities. Occup Ther Health Care. 2002;14:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/J003v14n01_01 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A 10-point improvement is the minimum threshold for determining clinically meaningful improvement.

    “A 10-point improvement is the minimum threshold for determining clinically meaningful improvement [66].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] U.S. Dept. of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD [Internet]. PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). 2016. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp . Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A 5-point decrease is the minimum threshold used to determine that an individual has responded to a treatment modality.

    “A 5-point decrease is the minimum threshold used to determine that an individual has responded to a treatment modality [66].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] U.S. Dept. of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD [Internet]. PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). 2016. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp . Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Human touch is an essential factor in the creation of human-horse affiliations.

    “Other investigators have reported that human touch is an essential factor in the creation of human-horse affiliations [71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Payne E, DeAraugo J, Bennett P, McGreevy P. Exploring the existence and potential underpinnings of dog-human and horse-human attachment bonds. Behav Process. 2016;125:114–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.10.004 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    The length of our THR program may have been too short.

    “Furthermore, the length of our THR program may have been too short.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Our findings showed beneficial outcomes in PTSD at the 3-week measurement, longer participation (six weeks) was beneficial for self-efficacy and emotion regulation.

    “While our findings showed beneficial outcomes in PTSD at the 3-week measurement, longer participation (six weeks) was beneficial for self-efficacy and emotion regulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    A 3-week THR program was effective, and a 6-week program produced clinically significant outcomes in PTSD levels.

    “A 3-week THR program was effective, and a 6-week program produced clinically significant outcomes in PTSD levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Other investigators have advocated for an individualized approach to selecting 'talkative volunteers' or less talkative volunteers as a match with each veteran's needs, which may enhance veterans' THR experience.

    “Other investigators have advocated for an individualized approach to selecting “talkative volunteers” or less talkative volunteers as a match with each veteran’s needs, which may enhance veterans’ THR experience [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] MacLean B. Equine-assisted therapy. J Rehabil Res Dev 2011;48(7): ix-xii. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.05.0085 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Previously, THR participants have characterized horses as accepting and nonjudgmental.

    “Previously, THR participants have characterized horses as accepting and nonjudgmental [54].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Bizub AL, Joy A, Davidson L. Demonstrating the benefits of therapuetic horseback riding for individuals with psychiatric disability. Psychiatr Rehabil J. 2003;26:377–84. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    This behavior may have positively potentiated the effects of our intervention and is a strength of our design.

    “which may have positively potentiated the effects of our intervention and is a strength of our design.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    THR may be more accessible to rural veterans who may have to travel long distances to reach VA treatment programs.

    “THR may be more accessible to rural veterans who may have to travel long distances to reach VA treatment programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A total summed PCL-M score (possible range 17 to 85) is obtained, and a score of at least 50 is indicative of a PTSD diagnosis.

    “A total summed score (possible range of 17 to 85) is obtained, and a score of at least 50 is indicative of a PTSD diagnosis [60].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Weathers FW, Litz BT, Herman DS, Huska JA, Keane TM. Psychometric properties of nine scoring rules for the clinician-administered post-traumatic stress disorder scale. Psychol Assess. 1999;11:124–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.2.124 . source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Physical benefits of THR include improved sitting posture, motor function, postural balance, decreased muscle tension, improved balance and gait, and reduction of pain.

    “Physical benefits of THR include improved sitting posture [37], motor function [45], postural balance [35, 38], decreased muscle tension [38, 41], improved balance and gait [42], and reduction of pain [38, 46].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [37] Land G, Errington-Povalac E, Paul S. The effects of therapeutic riding on sitting posture in individuals with disabilities. Occup Ther Health Care. 2002;14:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/J003v14n01_01 . source
    • cites [45] Henriksen JD. Horseback riding for the handicapped. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1971;52:282–3.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [35] Araujo TB, Silva NA, Costa JN, Pereira MM, Safons MP. Effect of equine-assisted therapy on the postural balance of the elderly. Braz J Phy Ther. 2011;15:414–9. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552011005000027 . source
    • cites [38] Hammer A, Nilsagård Y, Forsberg A, Pepa H, Skargren E, Öberg B. Evaluation of therapeutic riding (Sweden)/hippotherapy (United States). A single-subject experimental design study replicated in eleven patients with multiple sclerosis. Physiother Theory Pract. 2005;21:51–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593980590911525 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Other research demonstrated that quietly petting a dog was associated with a relaxation effect (lower blood pressure and cortisol levels).

    “Other research demonstrated that quietly petting a dog was associated with a relaxation effect (lower blood pressure and cortisol levels) [74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Odendaal JSJ, Meintjes RA. Neurophysiological correlates of affiliative behaviour between humans and dogs. Vet J. 2003;165:296–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-0233(02)00237-X . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Volunteering has been found to be a meaningful activity for veterans, particularly those who served in combat.

    “Volunteering has been found to be a meaningful activity for veterans, particularly those who served in combat [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] Nesbit R, Reingold DA. Soldiers to citizens: the link between military service and volunteering. Public Adm Rev. 2011;71:67–76. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The SELSA does not capture experiential isolation, which has been defined as failed inter-subjectivity.

    “Another limitation is that it does not capture experiential isolation, which has been defined as failed inter-subjectivity [69].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Stein JY, Tuval-Mashiach R. The social construction of loneliness: an integrative conceptualization. J Constr Psychol. 2014;7:122. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036936 . source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    THR is effective at improving coping skills and in lessening one's difficulty with emotional regulation, especially with longer riding interventions.

    “Our findings provide empirical evidence that THR is effective at improving coping skills and in lessening one’s difficulty with emotional regulation, especially with longer riding interventions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    A common criticism of human-animal interaction research is that we cannot be sure that change is caused by only the animal because an animal handler is nearly always involved in such interactions.

    “A common criticism of human-animal interaction research is that we cannot be sure that change is caused by only the animal because an animal handler is nearly always involved in such interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductown data

    The THR program was delivered according to a systematized curriculum developed by the research team.

    “Participants attended THR classes once per week for 6 weeks in accordance with the systematized THR curriculum developed by the research team, which included 2 occupational therapists and 2 PATH-certified riding instructors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    We did not use a longitudinal follow-up.

    “We did not use a longitudinal follow-up.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    THR is not a replacement for conventional therapies used to treat PTSD, but as a complementary therapy, riding centers may be a readily accessible resource to veterans in rural areas.

    “THR is clearly not a replacement for conventional therapies used to treat PTSD, but as a complementary therapy, riding centers may be a readily accessible resource to veterans in rural areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    A single study was identified which showed quantitative decreases in depression and improvements in reported physical health due to a 24-week THR program.

    “A single study was identified which showed quantitative decreases in depression and improvements in reported physical health due to a 24-week THR program [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Lanning BA, Krenek N. Examining effects of equine-assisted activities to help combat veterans improve quality of life. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2013;50(8): xv-xxii. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2013.07.0159 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The SELSA consists of 15 items assessing emotional, family, and romantic loneliness.

    “The Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults-short version (SELSA) consists of 15 items assessing emotional, family, and romantic loneliness rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 7 (‘strongly agree’) [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] DiTommaso E, Brannen C, Best LA. Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults. Educ Psychol Meas. 2004;64:99–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258450 . source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Horses and THR have been previously used in treating PTSD; however, there are no randomized controlled trials studying the effectiveness of horses in reducing levels of PTSD.

    “Horses and THR have been previously used in treating PTSD; however, there are no randomized controlled trials studying the effectiveness of horses in reducing levels of PTSD [53].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Cantin A, Marshall-Lucette S. Examining the literature on the efficacy of equine assisted therapy for people with mental health and behavioral disorders. Ment Health Learn. 2001;8:51–61. https://doi.org/10.5920/mhldrp.2011.8151 . source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductcitation

    One potential limitation of the SELSA with combat veterans is that loneliness, which may be associated with guilt and/or shame, is called spiritual or existential loneliness.

    “One potential limitation of the SELSA with combat veterans is that loneliness, which may be associated with guilt and/or shame, is called spiritual or existential loneliness [56].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Johnson RA, Meadows RL. Dog-walking: motivation for adherence to a walking program. Clin Nurs Res. 2010;19:387–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/1054773810373122 . source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Psychological improvements due to THR include increased self-efficacy, motivation, and courage, reduced psychological distress, and enhanced psychological well-being.

    “Psychological improvements due to THR include increased self-efficacy, motivation, and courage [41–44], reduced psychological distress [44], and enhanced psychological well-being [37, 44].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [41] Lechner HE, Feldhaus S, Gudmundsen L, Hegemann D, Michel D, Zäch GA, et al. The short-term effect of hippotherapy on spasticity in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2003;41:502–5. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3101492 . source
    • cites [42] Ungermann CM, Gras LZ. Therapeutic riding followed by rhythmic auditory stimulation to improve balance and gait in a subject with orthopedic pathologies. J Altern Complement Med. 2001;17:1191–5. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2009.0708 . source
    • cites [43] Biery MJ, Kauffman N. The effects of therapeutic horseback riding on balance. Adapt Phys Q. 1989;6:221–9. source
    • cites [44] Keren O, Reznik J, Groswasser Z. Combined motor disturbances following severe traumatic brain injury: an integrative long-term treatment approach. Brain Inj. 2001;15:633–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050118042 . source
    • cites [37] Land G, Errington-Povalac E, Paul S. The effects of therapeutic riding on sitting posture in individuals with disabilities. Occup Ther Health Care. 2002;14:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/J003v14n01_01 . source
72 of 72

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Independence of observations was presumed.

    “Independence of observations was also presumed.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    None of the prior veteran-reported THR studies employed widely used and standardized instruments to measure outcomes.

    “While these studies provide veteran reported evidence of THR, none employed widely used and standardized instruments to measure outcomes.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The wait-list control group would not have changes in outcome measures during the 6-week waitlist control period.

    “Veterans assigned to the waitlist control group were not expected to have any changes in outcome measures during the 6-week waitlist control period.”
3 of 3

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(1, 17) = 10.678reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005

    “F(1,17) = 10.678, p = .005”

  • ConsistentF(1, 17) = 8.75reported p = .009 · recomputed p = .009

    “F(1,17) = 8.750, p = .009”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Riding-group baseline count does not add up

    Minor

    The riding group had 15 participants, and 13 wait-list participants subsequently began riding. Together they give a treatment baseline of 28, not the stated 23; Table 2 also lists 28.

    Reported 23 · recomputed 28

  • Wait-list data collection is described as both three and five times

    Minor

    The procedures assign both schedules to the wait-list control group. Table 1 supports five collection times for that group, so the three-time description conflicts with the stated schedule.

2 of 2

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1986.
  2. Schell TL, Marshall GN. Survey of individuals previously deployed for OEF/OIF. In: Tanielian T, Jaycox LH, editors. Nvisible wounds of war: psychological and cognitive Injuries,Their consequences, and services to assist recovery. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation; 2008. p. 93.
  3. Strauss JL, Lang AJ. Complementary and alternative treatments for PTSD. PTSD Res Quart. 2012;23:1–3.
  4. McKay-Lyons M, Conway M, Roberts W. Effects of therapeutic riding on patients with multiple sclerosis: a preliminary trial. Physiother Can. 1988;40:104–9.
  5. Webster A, Pfotenhauer M, David E, Leyerer U, Rimpau W, Aldridge D, et al. Registration and evaluation of effects of hippotherapy with patients suffering from multiple sclerosis by means of electromyography and acceleration measurement. Sci J Therapeutic Riding. 1995;1:333–46.
  6. Duncan CR, Critchley S, Marland J. Can praxis: a model of equine assisted learning (EAL) for PTSD. CMJ. 2014;14:64–9.
  7. Nunnally JC, Bernstein IH. Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill; 1994.
  8. Kazdin AE. Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research. 3rd ed. Washington DC: American Psychological Association; 2003.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Johnson, R. A., Albright, D. L., Marzolf, J. R., Bibbo, J. L., Yaglom, H. D., Crowder, S. M., Carlisle, G. K., Willard, A., Russell, C. L., Grindler, K., Osterlind, S., Wassman, M., & Harms, N.
Affiliations
  • Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital (US)
  • University of Alabama (US)
  • Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
  • University of Missouri (US)
  • University of Missouri–Kansas City (US)
  • Enveloppes fluides : de la ville à l'exobiologie (FR)
Corresponding author
Johnson, Rebecca A.
ORCID
Venue
Military Medical Research
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2018-01-19
Volume
5
Issue
1
Pages
3-3
ISSN
2054-9369 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/s40779-018-0149-6
PMC
PMC5774121
OpenAlex
W2790625360
Semantic Scholar
94d71bcb96715b9cb069005bb59610725ee50124
Cited by
105
References
69
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 2
FWCI
9.53
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Military Medical Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Horses and Humans Research Foundation (#00040568)
  • University of Missouri Interdisciplinary Center on Aging (n/a)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Human-Animal Interaction Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Keywords
therapeutic riding, post-traumatic stress disorder, military veterans, PTSD symptom reduction, coping self-efficacy, emotion regulation, equine-assisted therapy, traumatic brain injury
MeSH terms
Brain Injuries, Traumatic, Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, United States, United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans, Logistic Models, Equine-Assisted Therapy

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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