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Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

White, Barbara Y., Frederiksen, John R.·1998·Cognition and Instruction

DOI 10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2

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Abstract

Our objective has been to develop an instructional theory and corresponding curricular materials that make scientific inquiry accessible to a wide range of students, including younger and lower achieving students. We hypothesized that this could be achieved by recognizing the importance of metacognition and creating an instructional approach that develops students' metacognitive knowledge and skills through a process of scaffolded inquiry, reflection, and generalization. Toward this end, we collaborated with teachers to create a computer enhanced, middle school science curriculum that engages students in learning about and reflecting on the processes of scientific inquiry as they construct increasingly complex models of force and motion phenomena. The resulting ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum centers around a metacognitive model of research, called the Inquiry Cycle, and a metacognitive process, called Reflective Assessment, in which students reflect on their own and each other's inquiry. In this article, we report on instructional trials of the curriculum by teachers in urban classrooms, including a controlled comparison to determine the impact of including or not including the Reflective Assessment Process. Overall, the curriculum proved successful and students' performance improved significantly on both physics and inquiry assessments. The controlled comparison revealed that students' learning was greatly facilitated by Reflective Assessment. Furthermore, adding this metac…

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“…refers to students ’ agency and accountability in goal setting and planning, monitoring, and regulating their own and collective inquiry and learning (Scardamalia, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998; Yang et al., 2022; Yang, van Aalst, et al., 2020; Yang, Chen, et al., 2024; Yang, Yuan, et al., 2024).”
Improving Students' Engagement Level in Laboratory Activities a Case Study of Second-Year Biology Department Students in the 2025 E.C Academic Year
Alemneh, C., Munye, T., Mohammed, N., Shasho, G., Gizaw, E., & Siraj, Z. (2025) · Science Journal of Education · doi:10.11648/j.sjedu.20251304.11 · Cited by 3
Reconceptualizing Cognitive Load Theory
Kalyuga, S., & Plass, J. L. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190078539.003.0007 · Cited by 3
Promoting Effective Help-Seeking Behavior Through Declarative Instruction
Roll, I., Aleven, V., & Koedinger, K. R. (2004) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-30139-4_99 · Cited by 3
Cognitive resources of physics experts
Jones, D. C. (2015) · PhDT · doi:10.7282/t33j3fsc · Cited by 3
“In a study performed by Wineburg (1998), an expert historian reasoning outside his specific historical domain of expertise was able to develop a coherent understanding of Abraham Lincoln’s views on slavery by stringing together an argument which cross referenced and compared several different documents.”
Background
Computer-Supported Imagination
Landriscina, F. (2017) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2525-7.ch002 · Cited by 3
Scientifically Gifted Middle School Students’ Cognitive Structures about Scientific Inquiry Process
박형용, Kim, Y. S., & 최승희 (2015) · BIOLOGY EDUCATION · doi:10.15717/bioedu.2015.43.1.37 · Cited by 3
The Impacts of Automatic Scaffolding on Students' Acquisition of Data Collection Inquiry Skills
Pedro, M. S., Gobert, J. D., & Baker, R. S. (2014) · Grantee Submission · Cited by 3
Stimulating Research Skills in Undergraduate Computing Students: An Experience Report
dos Santos, S. C., Carvalho, A. C., Leite, G., Brito, L., & Gouveia, A. (2022) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie56618.2022.9962694 · Cited by 3
“Some studies reinforce the potential of research experiences in stimulating technical and non-technical skills [12] [13] [14] [15].”
Background
Blended learning environments to foster self-directed learning
Bergamin, N., Bergamin, P. B., Breed, B., Bunt, B. J., Dhlamini, J. P., Jagals, D., Kemp, A. C., Kruger, C., Kruger, D. J. D., Lotz, C., et al. (2022) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2022.bk366 · Cited by 3
Examining the role of metadiscourse in collaborative knowledge building community
Chai, S., Oon, P., Chai, Y., & Li, Z. (2023) · Library Hi Tech · doi:10.1108/lht-03-2023-0085 · Cited by 3
The effects of prospective chemistry teachers’ laboratory teaching experiences on their metacognitive thinking skills and perceptions of problem-solving skills
Özgür, S. D. (2023) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-023-00760-y · Cited by 3
“Previous research suggests that learning environments that encourage students to use metacognitive strategies promote problem-solving and higher-order thinking skills (Toth et al., 2000; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
How the Affordances of Different Modeling Tools Impact Kindergartener‐Constructed Models and Modeling Reasoning
Louca, L. Τ., & Zacharia, Z. C. (2024) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21909 · Cited by 3
Support for creating introspective reports detailing cooperative behaviors with concept maps
Nonose, K., Okukubo, A., Yoda, Y., Kanno, T., & Furuta, K. (2015) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-015-0347-x · Cited by 3
“’’ While metacognition in learning is well organized in the past studies (Schraw 1998; White and Frederiksen 1998; White et al. 1999), there is little research on metacognition in team cooperation.”
Background
A Rasch Analysis of the Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory With Singapore Students
Ning, H. K. (2018) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2017.1358061 · Cited by 7
“…performance (e.g., Cardelle-Elawar, 1995; de Jager, Jansen, & Reezigt, 2005; Kramarski, Mevarech, & Arami, 2002; Michalsky, Mevarech, & Haibi, 2009; White & Frederiksen, 1998), the ability to identify students with lower levels of metacognition and target them for early intervention efforts can…”
Background
La robotique éducative en science : pourquoi et comment
Gaudiello, I., & Zibetti, E. (2019) · Enfance · doi:10.3917/enf2.193.0309 · Cited by 3
METHODOLOGICAL AND TECHNICAL DESIGN OF INNOVATIVE CLASSROOM
Морзе, Н., Бойко, М., Вембер, В. П., & Dziabenko, O. (2020) · OPEN EDUCATIONAL E-ENVIRONMENT OF MODERN UNIVERSITY · doi:10.28925/2414-0325.2020spv3 · Cited by 3
Test Corrections Appear To Benefit Lower-Achieving Students in an Introduction to Biology Major Course: Results of a Single-Site, One-Semester Study
Kemp, K. L. (2021) · Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education · doi:10.1128/jmbe.00122-21 · Cited by 3
Developing Scientific Inquiry in Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments
Chan, C. K. K., & Yang, Y. (2018) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53803-7_11-1 · Cited by 4
Enhancing the Critical Thinking Skills of Grade 8 Chemistry Students Using an Inquiry and Reflection Teaching Method
Farah, N., & Ayoubi, Z. (2019) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · Cited by 3
Fortifying the Pipeline: An Exploratory Study of High School Factors Impacting the Information Literacy of First-Year College Students
Fabbi, J. L. (2020) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/4251389 · Cited by 3
Son mejores científicos los alumnos de cuarto y quinto de Primaria a través del aprendizaje metacognitivo
Dejonckheere, P., Keere, K. V. D., & Tallir, I. (2011) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) · Cited by 3
The Design of Effective Simulation-Based Inquiry Learning Environments
de Jong, T. (2006) · International Conference on Computers in Education · Cited by 3
The Theory and Practice of Teaching and Guiding Legal Research Skills
Curry-Sumner, I., & van der Schaaf, M. F. (2011) · Recht en Methode in onderzoek en onderwijs · doi:10.5553/rem/221225082011001001005 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, students’ reflection on their process and overall qual‐ ity of the research is needed to enhance their deeper understanding of research (Gott & Duggan 1995; White & Frederiksen 1998, p. 3-118).”
Background
A Novel Instructional Sequence for Interactive Simulations (ISIS): Developing Conceptual Understanding in Physics Education in China within a Context of Curricular Reform
Geelan, D., & Fan, X. (2014) · International Conference of Educational Innovation through Technology (EITT) · doi:10.1109/eitt.2014.41 · Cited by 3
“Questions were drawn from a study by White and Frederiksen [25].”
Method
Rejoinder to Commentaries for "On the Structure of Educational Assessments"
Mislevy, R. J., Steinberg, L. S., & Almond, R. G. (2003) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1207/s15366359mea0101_04 · Cited by 3
Cooperative and collaborative learning in computer-based science instruction
Iding, M. K., Crosby, M. E., Speitel, T., Shimabuku, T., & Nguyen, T. D. (2005) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.1109/hicss.2001.926551 · Cited by 3
“However, cooperative learning is differentiated from collaborative learning, a method in which students learn together by the type of goal structure used.”
Method
MOVING BEYOND TEACHING METHODS IN SCHOOL SCIENCE - EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL VIEWPOINTS
Sormunen, K., & Saari, H. (2006) · Cited by 3
Keeping learning on track: integrating assessment with instruction 12
Wiliam, D. (2004) · Cited by 3
Monitoring and Predicting Journalistic Profiles
Gîfu, D., & Cristea, D. (2013) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40495-5_28 · Cited by 3
“Some platforms are known as to man-machine mediated interaction [2], [12], based on automatic learning to enhance the skills of detection for attributes in the identification of authors profiles for certain texts [20].”
Background
Neighbourhood Analysis to Foster Meaningful Learning Using Concept Mapping in Science Education.
Correia, P. R. M., & Cicuto, C. A. T. (2014) · Science education international · Cited by 3
Playing Music, Playing with Music: A Proposal for Music Coding in Primary School.
Baratè, A., Ludovico, L. A., Mangione, G. R., & de la Rosa, A. C. (2015) · E-Learning and Digital Media · Cited by 3
The ICAN Intervention: Helping Science Learners Make Connections to Content During Inquiry
Renninger, K. A., & Riley, K. R. (2015) · Science Scope · doi:10.2505/4/ss15_039_04_49 · Cited by 3
ÜSTBİLİŞSEL ETKİNLİKLERİN UZAKTAN EĞİTİM ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN ÜSTBİLİŞSEL SEVİYELERİ VE DERS ÇALIŞMA SÜREÇLERİ AÇISINDAN İNCELENMESİ
Aydemir, M., & Karaman, S. (2017) · Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama · doi:10.17943/etku.288730 · Cited by 3
DojoIBL: Online Inquiry-Based Learning
Suárez, Á., Ternier, S., & Specht, M. M. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66733-1_1 · Cited by 3
“[16] suggest an inquiry cycle consisting of 5 steps: (1) ask, (2) investigate, (3) create, (4) discuss and (5) reflect.”
Background
Algebra is not like trivia: Evaluating self-assessment in an online math tutor.
Jansen, R. A., Rafferty, A. N., & Griffiths, T. L. (2017) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 3
Metacognitive evaluations during science simulations: How do ratings of confidence and understanding relate to science assessment inquiry processes?
Finn, B. (2018) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000037 · Cited by 5
“…must accurately monitor their learning and performance and apply that information in refining their hypotheses and experiments (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983; Piaget & Inhelder, 1956; Schraw, Crippen, & Hartley, 2006; Schunk, 1996; White & Frederiksen, 1998, 2000; Zimmerman, 1990).”
Background
A comparison of self-reported teaching practices focused on student skills in introductory geoscience courses at two-year and four-year institutions: Results from the National Geoscience Faculty Survey
Gamage, K., McFadden, R. R., & Macdonald, R. H. (2020) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2020.1833655 · Cited by 3
“…explicitly by integrating them into classroom practice, they enhance students’ academic performance (Cook et al., 2013; Dunning et al., 2003; Pintrich, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998) and students develop their metacognitive skills over time (McCrindle & Christensen, 1995; Weinstein et al., 2000).”
Background
The Web of Inquiry: Computer Support for Playing Epistemic Games
Shimoda, T. A., & Borge, M. (2015) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.7763/ijiet.2016.v6.760 · Cited by 3
Untitled work
Maton (2000) · doi:10.1002/1098-2736(200009)37:7

Authors: White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R.
Venue: Cognition and Instruction
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1998-03
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
Pages: 3-118
ISSN: 0737-0008 (ISSN-L)
1532-690X
DOI: 10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2
OpenAlex: W2029930609
Cited by: 1,394
References: 73
Citations by year: 2026: 21 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 82 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 75 · 2012: 79
FWCI: 124.28
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Cognition and Instruction (publishedVersion)
HAL (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
Keywords: scientific inquiry, metacognition, reflective assessment, inquiry cycle, junior high school science, force and motion, modeling, scaffolding, low-achieving students, urban education, educational disadvantage

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Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

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