Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

“For instance, White and Frederiksen (1998) outlined the inquiry cycle into six stages: research question, hypothesis generation, scientific investigation, synthesis analysis, modeling, and evaluation.”

“The influence of scaffolding strategies (e.g., promoting students’ discussion of problems and evaluation of such) can vary by achievement level (Cuevas et al. 2002; Rivard 2004; So et al. 2010; White and Frederiksen 1998) and socio-economic status (Cuevas et al. 2005; Lynch et al. 2005).”

“Clough and Wood-Robinson’s (1985) research shows that many students had nonnormative ideas about parental gene contributions to their offspring. In particular, they found that there was a common belief that the maternal contribution was greater than the paternal contribution, or that the maternal contribution was the…”

“In the past few years, there have been studies that adopted such an approach (for example, McRobbie and Thomas 2000, Reiner et al. 1995, Roth et al. 1996, Tao and Gunstone 1999, White and Frederiksen 1998), but such studies are few in number.”

“The classroom context is complex and if students use a CBLE, they often work in collaborative groups or pairs while learning (e.g., Hoffman, Wu, Krajcik, & Soloway, 2003; Linn & Eylon, 2000; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“This was demonstrated by a science intervention studied by White and Frederiksen (1998).”

“…and refinement of models (Constantinou, 1996), and therefore learning science should include developing understanding about natural phenomena by constructing models, as well as learning the process of developing and refining those models (National Research Council, 1990; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“Researchers believe that explicit handling of metacognitive knowledge in teaching is more important for low-achieving students than high-achieving students (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“have adequate background knowledge to engage in valuable inquiry (White and Fredericksen, 1998).”

“Research has shown that explicit instruction is necessary to successfully develop reasoning skills for all age levels [6, 11].”

“Reform efforts and increased attention to constructivist and sociocultural views of learning science (Driver et al. 1994) have resulted in substantial research and innovations in teaching inquiry skills (e.g., White and Frederiksen 1998 ), culturally responsive science teaching (e.g., Luykx”

“quantum system, a conceptual understanding must not be overlooked [14], [15].”

“Nonetheless, for pedagogical purposes, presenting students with an inquiry cycle, in which one starts with theorizing and questioning, is an effective initial model that can enable students to develop capabilities for inquiry, as well as an understanding of its constituent processes (Frederiksen, White, Li, Herrenkohl…”

“Because of these characteristics, computer simulation games are thought to have the potential to help students discover additional information about basic concepts (White, 1993; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“…to be carefully considered when promoting growth mindsets in schools including praise (Mueller & Dweck, 1998); mistakes (Boaler, 2015; Nussbaum & Dweck, 2008); grit (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007); feedback (Hattie & Timperley, 2007); and goal setting (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“[53], and included starting inquiry experiments, conducting inquiry experiments, cooperation, and communication during inquiry experiments, and evaluating inquiry experiments.”

“In solving ill-structured problems, students were required to apply their domain knowledge in a meaningful way (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“Selected yet powerful examples of such models currently exist and they demonstrate how cognitive theory can be applied to issues of curriculum, instruction, and assessment (e.g., Hunt & Minstrell, 1996; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“Resulting from this, inquiry learning consists of processes that comprise formulating hypothesis, gathering data and interpreting it, and making conclusions [4, 5, 6 ].”

“At the same time, they are learning to be teachers following a model (White & Frederiksen, 1998) to implement and guide the teaching procedures with an online component.”

“In previous research (White 1993; White and Frederiksen 1998), we developed the Inquiry Cycle as a general model of the inquiry process.”

“For instance, White and Frederiksen (1998) proposed an instructional approach that aims to develop students' metacognitive knowledge and skills through a process of inquiry and reflection.”

“…in improving content learning, science process skills, and student attitudes (e.g., Kanter and Konstantopoulos 2010; Marbach-Ad and Claassen 2001; Marx et al. 2004; Secker 2002; Secker and Lissitz 1999; Timmerman et al. 2008; Tretter and Jones 2003; Udovic et al. 2002; White and Frederickson 1998).”

“Mental models have led to the identification of important factors in learning and have supported curriculum reform efforts with some remarkable successes (Chi, Slotta, & Leeuw, 1994; Clement, 1993c; Clement, Brown, & Zietsman, 1989; Hennessey, 1999; Johnson & Stewart, 1990; Rea-Ramirez, 1998; P. H. Scott, Asoko, & Dri…”

“An inquiry cycle developed by White and Frederiksen (1998) also identified five inquiry phases, labelled question, predict, experiment, model, and apply.”

“Improving students’ confidence in their ability to provide feedback is a significant contribution of ComPAIR, similar to other forms of training (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“…namely, scientific modeling, has been highlighted as a core component of science education (Louca & Zacharia, 2008; diSessa, Abelson, & Ploger, 1991; Justi & Gilbert, 2002; Redish & Wilson, 1993; Sherin, 1996; Sherin, diSessa, & Hammer, 1993; White & Frederiksen, 1998; Wilensky & Resnick, 1999).”

“As a result, students ’ achievements and attitudes towards science education (biology, physics, and chemistry) will be improved (Hattie 2008; White and Frederiksen 1998).”

“From an educational perspective, the theoretical and practical approach of all re-designed workshops is firmly based on the assumptions of moderate constructivism [53–57], conceptual change [58–64], and inquiry-based-learning [65–72].”

“First, learning in museums can be characterized as inquiry learning (Crowley, Pierroux, and Knutson 2014), and learners’ metacognition has been shown critical in conducting science inquiries that lead to the acquisition of science knowledge (White and Frederiksen 1998).”

“…2004; Hickey, Kindfield, Horwitz, & Christie, 2003; Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006; Linn & Hsi, 2000; Marx et al., 2004; McNeill & Krajcik, 2007, 2008; Reiser et al., 2001; Samarapungavan et al., 2008; Sandoval & Millwood, 2005; Schwartz & White, 2005; C. Smith et al., 1997; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“…for both individuals and groups of learners [28] by identifying deficiencies in cognition, improving understanding, and identifying the characteristics of good performance in a domain [36], the LARI is designed to facilitate similar reflective practices within HEIs in continual iterative cycles.”

“…level (e.g., Andersen & Garcia-Mila, 2017), or has reported correlations between the quality of self-regulation skills and improvement of inquiry skills (e.g., Pedaste et al., 2012), or has focused on supporting self-regulation during inquiry (e.g., Manlove et al., 2007; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“…behind their ideas (Gunstone & Champagne, 1990); (2) discovering new ideas, for example, from scientific models or peers (Sampson & Clark, 2009; White & Frederiksen, 1998); (3) distinguishing among current ideas and new discoveries (Clark, 2006; Wen et al., 2020), and (4) reflecting on this…”

“For example, over the course of more than a decade, White (1984, 1993; White and Frederiksen, 1998 ) developed a simulation-based program for teaching Newtonian physics to high school students and conducted controlled experiments establishing its effectiveness.”

“…single dimension of teacher candidate “skills and abilities” from the literature on situated inquiry, modeling in learning theory, and metacognition (White & Frederiksen, 1998).7 Research on metacognition, in particular, suggests that differences between teacher candidates may be substantially…”

“A significant amount of science teaching research has been conducted that deals with evaluating cause and effect models (Raghaven and Glaser, 1995; White and Frederiksen, 1998), teaching and learning with concrete models (Gilbert, 1991; Gilbert and Ireton, 2003) and the”

“Providing students with self-directed activities that are engaging and purposeful has been shown to increase interest in science (Blankenburg et al., 2016; Kass & MacDonald, 1999; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“Developing this capacity for internal dialogue and monitoring has been shown to improve understanding and transferability to new settings in several fields, including physics and mathematics (Bransford et al., 2000; Palincsar & Brown, 1984; White & Frederickson, 1998).”

“White and Frederiksen (1998) included predictions as part of their inquiry cycle to facilitate metacognition.”

“The practice of scientific modeling allows scientists as well as others to make sense of phenomena and lies at the core of scientific endeavors (White and Frederiksen,1998; Nancy Pelaez, Monitoring Editor Submitted February 9, 2017; Revised September 11, 2017; Accepted September 13,…”

“The importance of metacognition (and self-regulation) for successful scientific reasoning was stressed more than 20 years ago (White & Frederiksen, 1998; Schunk and Zimmerman, 1998).”

“According to multiple researchers, IBSE is based on the constructivist approach (Eisenkraft, 2003; Llewellyn, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“Similar to self-assessment, the technique of reflective assessment to enhance metacognitive thinking has been recommended by researchers such as Abell & Bryan (1997), Donovan & Bransford (2005), and White & Frederiksen (1998) , in which self-evaluation experiences are introduced through conference and checklists focus…”

“In a metacognitive process called ‘‘reflective assessment’’ (White & Frederiksen, 1998), the WOI builds in self-assessments as well as peer feedback and discussion, as research shows that feedback coming from the teacher or a peer and one’s own self-assessment impacts learners’ knowledge and beliefs…”

“More importantly, learning has been shown to improve when students take ownership of their own learning and act as instructional resources for one another (Andrade et al., 2008; Cohen et al., 2003; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“…et al., Supporting technology-enhanced inquiry through metacognitive and cognitive prompts: Sequential analysis of metacognitive actions in response to mixed prompts, Computers in Human Behavior (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.chb.2016.10.004 Krajcik, 2005; White & Frederiksen, 1998, 2005).”

“It is possible that weak students often lack high-level cognitive and metacognitive skills [18,52], and scaffolding for complex thinking and learning can effectively engage weak students in complex tasks and make them benefit more from the learning program [53,54]().”

“…it increases students' beliefs that scientific theories change as new evidence becomes available (rather than being seen as unchangeable entities), and perhaps most importantly, it makes science more concretely meaningful (rather than seeming too abstract) (White and Fredricksen, 1998).”

“This focus on models and modeling is found among other authors as well, including White and colleagues (Schwarz and White 2005; White and Frederiksen 1998), who explicitly address teaching about modeling in what they call a ‘‘meta-modeling’’ approach.”

“However, other studies show that providing an environment in which metacognitive strategy use is supported improves metacognitive strategy use and awareness in students (Case, Gunstone, & Lewis, 2001; Kipnis & Hofstein, 2008; Sandi-Urena, Cooper, & Stevens, 2011, 2012; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”

“Metacognitive awareness, thus, tends to make students more systematic in their thinking, and helps them identify errors before they proceed too far in the wrong direction of the inquiry process (Keselman, 2003; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”