Cited by 1,394Science Education and PedagogyInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsEducational Strategies and Epistemologies

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Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

White, Barbara Y., Frederiksen, John R.·1998·Cognition and Instruction

DOI 10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2

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Abstract

Our objective has been to develop an instructional theory and corresponding curricular materials that make scientific inquiry accessible to a wide range of students, including younger and lower achieving students. We hypothesized that this could be achieved by recognizing the importance of metacognition and creating an instructional approach that develops students' metacognitive knowledge and skills through a process of scaffolded inquiry, reflection, and generalization. Toward this end, we collaborated with teachers to create a computer enhanced, middle school science curriculum that engages students in learning about and reflecting on the processes of scientific inquiry as they construct increasingly complex models of force and motion phenomena. The resulting ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum centers around a metacognitive model of research, called the Inquiry Cycle, and a metacognitive process, called Reflective Assessment, in which students reflect on their own and each other's inquiry. In this article, we report on instructional trials of the curriculum by teachers in urban classrooms, including a controlled comparison to determine the impact of including or not including the Reflective Assessment Process. Overall, the curriculum proved successful and students' performance improved significantly on both physics and inquiry assessments. The controlled comparison revealed that students' learning was greatly facilitated by Reflective Assessment. Furthermore, adding this metac…

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Background
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“Exploring Students’ Engagement Within a Collaborative Inquiry-Based Language Learning Activity in a Blended Environment”
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“White and Frederiksen (1998, 2000) engaged their students in reﬂective assessments in which they used criteria to examine the quality of their inquiry projects.”
Background
The Significance of Contextual Factors in African American Students’ Transfer of Learning
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“Findings from these studies are also difficult to interpret but, considered together, do not support the use of some tools over others (Berlin & White, 1986; Choi & Gennaro, 1987; White & Fredericksen, 1998).”
Method
The Influence of Curriculum, Instruction, Technology, and Social Interactions on Two Fifth-Grade Students’ Epistemologies in Modeling Throughout a Model-Based Curriculum Unit
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“In particular, while scientific models and modeling has already been a consistent object of inquiry in science education for more than two decades (Halloun and Hestenes 1987; Gilbert 1991; Mellar et al. 1994; White and Frederiksen 1998; Harrison and Treagust 2000; Lehrer and Schauble 2006), we focus on students’ epist…”
Background
Training the Scientific Thinking Circle in Pre- and Primary School Children
Dejonckheere, P., Keere, K. V. D., & Mestdagh, N. (2009) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903228595 · Cited by 27
“Modern views of scientific methodology fit into this constructivist view of learning (White & Frederiksen, 1998) because the paradigm suggests that knowledge is related to the meaning that individuals give to their experiences.”
Background
From competition to metacognition
Foster, S. R., Esper, S., & Griswold, W. G. (2013) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2470654.2470669 · Cited by 22
“Metacognition has been widely recognized by the research community as a critical factor in optimizing both the depth of learning [39, 30], as well as the ability to transfer learned knowledge to new contexts [29, 13].”
Background
Deep Networks for Collaboration Analytics: Promoting Automatic Analysis of Face-to-Face Interaction in the Context of Inquiry-Based Learning
Lämsä, J., Uribe, P., Jiménez, A., Caballero, D., Hämäläinen, R., & Araya, R. (2021) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2021.7118 · Cited by 22
“CSCIL processes include different phases with various activities, and many scholars have presented IBL frameworks featuring such variety (e.g., Bybee et al., 2006; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Online Learning Environments, Scientific Argumentation, and 21st Century Skills
Clark, D. B., Sampson, V. D., Stegmann, K., Marttunen, M. J., Kollar, I., Janssen, J. J. H. M., Erkens, G., Weinberger, A., Menekşe, M., & Laurinen, L. I. (2010) · Advances in social networking and online communities book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-729-9.ch001 · Cited by 22
Driving Assessment of Students’ Explanations in Game Dialog Using Computer-Adaptive Testing and Hidden Markov Modeling
Clark, D. B., Martinez-Garza, M. M., Biswas, G., Luecht, R. M., & Sengupta, P. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3546-4_10 · Cited by 23
Socioscientific issues: promoting science teachers’ pedagogy on social justice
Macalalag, A., Kaufmann, A., Meter, B. V., Ricketts, A., Liao, E., & Ialacci, G. (2024) · Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research · doi:10.1186/s43031-024-00118-4 · Cited by 21
Understanding and managing the complexities in situated learning in immersive virtual environments
Wang, M., Dede, C., Grotzer, T. A., & Chen, J. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10519-5 · Cited by 34
“Such kind of knowledge and skills can be referred to learning how to learn, which are often missing in most school curricula (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Participation in Knowledge-Building Discourse: An Analysis of Online Discussions in Mainstream and Honours Social Studies Courses
Niu, H., & van Aalst, J. (2009) · Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology · doi:10.21432/t2m88c · Cited by 21
The Role of Computer Simulation in an Inquiry-Based Learning Environment: Reconstructing Geological Events as Geologists
Lin, L.-F., Hsu, Y., & Yeh, Y. (2011) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9330-3 · Cited by 21
Skill Diaries: Improve Student Learning in an Intelligent Tutoring System with Periodic Self-Assessment
Long, Y., & Aleven, V. A. W. M. M. (2013) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39112-5_26 · Cited by 21
“White and Frederiksen [12] found that paper-based periodic reflective activities can enhance students’ learning significantly.”
EFL learners’ metacognitive development in flipped learning: a comparative study
Shih, H.-C. J., & Huang, S. C. (2020) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1728343 · Cited by 32
“Taken together, it is therefore not surprising to see growing interest in instructional intervention on developing students’ metacognitive knowledge and strategies (White & Frederiksen, 1998, 2000).”
Background
Impacts of students' experimentation using a dynamic visualization on their understanding of motion
McElhaney, K. W., & Linn, M. C. (2008) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 21
Supporting students to become autonomous learners: the role of web-based learning
Petra, S. F., Jaidin, J. H., Perera, J. S. H. Q., & Linn, M. C. (2016) · International Journal of Information and Learning Technology · doi:10.1108/ijilt-05-2016-0017 · Cited by 21
The effects of computerized inquiry‐stage‐dependent argumentation assistance on elementary students' science process and argument construction skills
Lin, C.-W., Chiu, C., Hsu, C.-C., Wang, T.-I., & Chen, C.-H. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12241 · Cited by 21
Technology Use in Science Instruction (TUSI): Aligning the Integration of Technology in Science Instruction in Ways Supportive of Science Education Reform
Campbell, T., & Abd‐Hamid, N. H. (2012) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-012-9415-7 · Cited by 21
Reflective Personality: Identifying Cognitive Style and Cognitive Complexity
van Seggelen-Damen, I. C. M. (2013) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-013-9166-5 · Cited by 22
“Its experimental nature facilitates observation from different angles and helps to adopt multiple frames of reference (Millar and Tesser 1986; White and Frederiksen 1998).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Learning Genetics from Dragons: From Computer-Based Manipulatives to Hypermodels
Horwitz, P., Gobert, J. D., Buckley, B. C., & O’Dwyer, L. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-88279-6_3 · Cited by 19
“CAI technologies, though they have been demonstrated to be effective in enhancing procedural skills, are less successful at teaching higher-order thinking and eliciting students’ mental models ( White & Frederiksen, 1998 ).”
BackgroundMethod
What’s the Technology For? Teacher Attention and Pedagogical Goals in a Modeling-Focused Professional Development Workshop
Wilkerson, M. H., Andrews, C., Shaban, Y., Laina, V., & Gravel, B. (2016) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-016-9453-8 · Cited by 26
“Model-based inquiry is advocated as a way to expose learners to the nature of science as an iterative theory-building enterprise, supported by ideas, argument, systematic inquiry, and evidence (White & Frederiksen, 1998; Windschitl, Thompson, & Braaten, 2008).”
Background
The Teaching of Anthropogenic Climate Change and Earth Science via Technology-Enabled Inquiry Education
Bush, D., Sieber, R. E., Seiler, G., & Chandler, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/15-127 · Cited by 22
“Furthermore, computer tools often provide prompting or activities for students to reﬂect on learning (Pilkington and Parker-Jones, 1996; White and Frederiksen, 1998) and cues for when to interpret data more carefully (Reid et al., 2003).”
Background
Elementary school children’s understanding of science: The implementation of an extracurricular science intervention
Schiefer, J., Golle, J., Tibus, M., Trautwein, U., & Oschatz, K. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.09.011 · Cited by 24
Coding in scientific modeling lessons (CS-ModeL)
Vasconcelos, L., & Kim, C. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09724-w · Cited by 21
Stichwort: Schuleffektivitätskriterien in der internationalen empirischen Forschung
Seidel, T. (2008) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-008-0032-4 · Cited by 20
Inquiry-Based Activities and Games That Engage Students in Learning Atomic Orbitals
Li, X., Muñiz, M. N., Chun, K., Tai, J., Guerra, F., & York, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c01023 · Cited by 19
“19 The Activity begins with an orientation 19,23 or engagement 24 phase in which the topic of the Activity is introduced.”
Leveraging College Students’ Scientific Evidence-Based Reasoning Performance with Eye-Tracking-Supported Metacognition
Tsai, P.-Y., Yang, T.-T., She, H., & Chen, S. (2019) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-019-09791-x · Cited by 19
“Other studies have provided further evidence to demonstrate that a positive correlation exists between scientific reasoning and metacognitive scaffolding (Etkina and Mestre 2004; Moore and Rubbo 2012; White and Frederiksen 1998; Zohar and David 2008).”
Background
Thinking Processes Associated with Undergraduate Chemistry Students’ Success at Applying a Molecular-Level Model in a New Context
Teichert, M. A., Tien, L. T., Dysleski, L., & Rickey, D. (2017) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00762 · Cited by 23
21. Yüzyıl Becerilerinin Kazandırılmasına Yönelik Tasarlanan Argümantasyon Destekli Araştırma Sorgulamaya Dayalı Öğretim Modelinin Betimlenmesi
Ecevit, T., & Kaptan, F. (2019) · Hacettepe University Journal of Education · doi:10.16986/huje.2019056328 · Cited by 20
Cognitively Based Assessment of Research and Inquiry Skills: Defining a Key Practice in the English Language Arts
Sparks, J. R., & Deane, P. (2015) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12082 · Cited by 20
“These steps are consistent with but not identical to instructional models of inquiry learning, such as the inquiry cycle of White and Frederiksen (1998), a model that includes processes of questioning, predicting, experimenting, modeling, and applying information.”
Method
The Effects of Metacognitive Reflective Assessment on Fifth and Sixth Graders' Mathematics Achievement
Bond, J. B., & Ellis, A. K. (2013) · School Science and Mathematics · doi:10.1111/ssm.12021 · Cited by 19
Determining Virtual Environment “Fit”: The Relationship Between Navigation Style in a Virtual Field Trip, Student Self-Reported Desire to Visit the Field Trip Site in the Real World, and the Purposes of Science Education
Tutwiler, M. S., Lin, M.-C., & Chang, C. (2012) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-012-9398-4 · Cited by 20
“One aspect of that necessary framing, as suggested by multiple theories of inquiry, is providing students the ability to engage in data collection in authentic environments (Chinn and Brewer 2001; National Research Council 2005; White and Frederiksen 1998).”
Background
Developing physics concepts through hands-on problem solving: a perspective on a technological project design
Hong, J., Chen, M.-Y., Wong, A., Hsu, T. F., & Peng, C.-C. (2011) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-011-9163-7 · Cited by 19
“As the problem-solving in this project competition was progressive and contradictive, the evidence of the development, evolution, and improvement of ideas written by students demonstrated the thoroughness of their understanding of physics concepts such as the laws of force and motion ( White and Frederiksen 1998; Muuk…”
Background
Toward Next-Generation, Intelligent Tutors: Adding Natural Handwriting Input
Anthony, L., Yang, J., & Koedinger, K. R. (2008) · IEEE Multimedia · doi:10.1109/mmul.2008.73 · Cited by 20
“Please cite the definitive version at http://www.computer.org/portal/web/csdl/doi/10.1109/MMUL.2008.73”
Influential
Enhancing Preservice Teachers' Understanding of Web-based Scientific Inquiry
Bodzin, A. M., & Cates, W. M. (2003) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1023/b:jste.0000009549.20273.8a · Cited by 19
The triarchic theory of intelligence and computer-based inquiry learning
Howard, B. C., McGee, S., Shin, N., & Shia, R. M. (2001) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504947 · Cited by 19
“…students engage actively in “investigations” in which students are posed an authentic problem facing scientists today (e.g., Julyan, 1991; Linn, 1995; Linn & Songer, 1991; Maor & Fraser, 1996; Means & Olson, 1997; Newman, 1990, 1992; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1993; White & Frederiksen, 1995, 1998).”
Background
Designing the "Web-Based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE).".
Slotta, J. (2002) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 19
Supporting and Assessing Complex Biology Learning with Computer-Based Simulations and Representations
Buckley, B. C., & Quellmalz, E. (2013) · Models and modeling in science education · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4192-8_14 · Cited by 20
SURGE’s Evolution Deeper into Formal Representations: The Siren’s Call of Popular Game-Play Mechanics
Clark, D. B., Virk, S., Sengupta, P., Brady, C. E., Martinez-Garza, M. M., Krinks, K. D., Killingsworth, S. S., Kinnebrew, J. S., Biswas, G., Barnes, J., et al. (2016) · International Journal of Designs for Learning · doi:10.14434/ijdl.v7i1.19359 · Cited by 18
“Work and development on ThinkerTools (see Figure 4), for example, followed this path of focusing on very abstract and spare graphical representations with the explicit goal of facilitating transfer to other contexts (White, 1993; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Effect of Emotional Intelligence and Critical Thinking Disposition on Resilience of the Student in Transition to Higher Education Phase
Sk, S., & Halder, S. (2021) · Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory & Practice · doi:10.1177/15210251211037996 · Cited by 26
“…inquiry-based environment, students are more likely to ask questions freely, offer supporting evidence for their arguments, communicate productively and ef ﬁ ciently with each other, and actively monitor and assess their own participative behavior (Kolodner et al., 2003; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Visible thinking to support online project-based learning: Narrowing the achievement gap between high- and low-achieving students
Peng, J., Sun, M., Yuan, B., Lim, C. P., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Wang, M. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11896-1 · Cited by 22
“…long as effective tools are provided, students of all academic levels could engage in the tasks that involve higher order thinking (Zohar & Dori, 2003) and low achievers with inadequate skills for higher-order thinking tend to benefit more from the use of thinking tools (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Self-Explanation and Explanatory Feedback in Games: Individual Differences, Gameplay, and Learning
Killingsworth, S. S., Clark, D. B., & Adams, D. M. (2015) · International Journal of Education in Mathematics Science and Technology · doi:10.18404/ijemst.15600 · Cited by 18
DEVELOPING A MOBILE LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR OUTDOORS NATURE SCIENCE ACTIVITIES BASED ON 5E LEARNING CYCLE
Lai, A., Lai, H.-Y., Chuang, W.-H., & Wu, Z.-H. (2015) · International Association for Development of the Information Society · Cited by 18
Fostering changes in teacher attitudes toward the use of computer simulations: Flexibility, pedagogy, usability and needs
Lee, W. C., Neo, W. L., Chen, D.-T., & Lin, T. (2021) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10506-2 · Cited by 28
Robust Designs for Scalability
Clarke‐Midura, J., & Dede, C. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09667-4_3 · Cited by 18
“Using strategies from the literature on metacognition (Brown, 1987; Campione, 1987; Schoenfeld, 1992; White & Frederiksen, 1998 ) and reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984, 1985; Palincsar, 1986; Palincsar, Ranson, & Derber, 1989), the ‘‘wise fools’’ will ask students for information and encourage student learn…”
Method

Authors: White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R.
Venue: Cognition and Instruction
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1998-03
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
Pages: 3-118
ISSN: 0737-0008 (ISSN-L)
1532-690X
DOI: 10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2
OpenAlex: W2029930609
Cited by: 1,394
References: 73
Citations by year: 2026: 21 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 82 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 75 · 2012: 79
FWCI: 124.28
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Cognition and Instruction (publishedVersion)
HAL (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
Keywords: scientific inquiry, metacognition, reflective assessment, inquiry cycle, junior high school science, force and motion, modeling, scaffolding, low-achieving students, urban education, educational disadvantage

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Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

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