Cited by 1,394Science Education and PedagogyInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsEducational Strategies and Epistemologies

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Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

White, Barbara Y., Frederiksen, John R.·1998·Cognition and Instruction

DOI 10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2

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Abstract

Our objective has been to develop an instructional theory and corresponding curricular materials that make scientific inquiry accessible to a wide range of students, including younger and lower achieving students. We hypothesized that this could be achieved by recognizing the importance of metacognition and creating an instructional approach that develops students' metacognitive knowledge and skills through a process of scaffolded inquiry, reflection, and generalization. Toward this end, we collaborated with teachers to create a computer enhanced, middle school science curriculum that engages students in learning about and reflecting on the processes of scientific inquiry as they construct increasingly complex models of force and motion phenomena. The resulting ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum centers around a metacognitive model of research, called the Inquiry Cycle, and a metacognitive process, called Reflective Assessment, in which students reflect on their own and each other's inquiry. In this article, we report on instructional trials of the curriculum by teachers in urban classrooms, including a controlled comparison to determine the impact of including or not including the Reflective Assessment Process. Overall, the curriculum proved successful and students' performance improved significantly on both physics and inquiry assessments. The controlled comparison revealed that students' learning was greatly facilitated by Reflective Assessment. Furthermore, adding this metac…

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Method
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“…doing autonomous inquiry include that it stimulates an interest in science (Mupira & Ramnarain, 2018; Potvin & Hasni, 2014), leads to conceptual (White & Frederiksen, 1998), improves an understanding of the nature of science (Gaigher, Lederman, & Lederman, 2014; Kremer, Specht, Urhahne, &…”
Background
Learners as phenomena: Expansive inquiry as students embody water particles
Keifert, D. T., Xiao, C., Enyedy, N., & Danish, J. A. (2021) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2021.100572 · Cited by 9
Examining ontological and self-monitoring scaffolding to improve complex systems thinking with a participatory simulation
Rates, C. A., Mulvey, B. K., Chiu, J. L., & Stenger, K. (2022) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09573-2 · Cited by 9
“Research demonstrates that students who plan and reflect on their understanding can learn more from simulations (Belland et al., 2017; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Chinese Preschool Teachers’ Use of Concept Development Strategies in Whole-Group Math Lessons and its Effectiveness
Deng, T., Hu, B. Y., Wang, X. C., Li, Y., Jiang, C., Su, Y., & LoCasale‐Crouch, J. (2022) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2022.2067428 · Cited by 9
“Unfortunately, these strategies are seldom observed in traditional math classes as they require open learning environments and student-centered instructional techniques (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Using Constraint-Based Modelling to Describe the Solution Space of Ill-defined Problems in Logic Programming
Le, N.-T., & Menzel, W. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-78139-4_33 · Cited by 9
“In solving ill-defined problems, students apply their domain knowledge in a meaningful way instead of storing a chunk of concepts in a memory [22].”
Background
Emergent themes from recent research syntheses in science education and their implications for research design, replication, and reporting practices
Taylor, J. A., Furtak, E. M., Kowalski, S. M., Martinez, A., Slavin, R. E., Stuhlsatz, M. A. M., & Wilson, C. D. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21327 · Cited by 10
The First Line of Contact: How Course Syllabi Can Be Used to Gauge & Reform Learner-Centeredness in a College Classroom
Heim, A. B., Aldor, E. R., & Holt, E. A. (2019) · The American Biology Teacher · doi:10.1525/abt.2019.81.6.403 · Cited by 9
The derailing impact of content standards–an equity focused district held back by narrow mathematics
LaMar, T., Leshin, M. S., & Boaler, J. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100015 · Cited by 9
Leveraging portfolios in professional development for middle school science teachers' assessment and data‐use practice
Kloser, M. J., Borko, H., Wilsey, M., & Rafanelli, S. (2022) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21712 · Cited by 11
L'évaluation formative
OCDE (2005) · OECD eBooks · doi:10.1787/9789264007420-fr · Cited by 11
HOW RELIABLE AND CONSISTENT IS OUR LEARNING COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY? PSYCHOMETRIC QUALITIES OF THE COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY SURVEY INSTRUMENT APPLIED TO A SAMPLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION PORTUGUESE STUDENTS
Moreira, J. A., & Almeida, A. C. (2011) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · Cited by 9
The Use of Graphical Analysis with Microcomputer-Based Laboratories to Implement Inquiry as the Primary Mode of Learning Science
Espinoza, F. (2007) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.2190/1qt3-6707-6054-v042 · Cited by 9
“…inquiry” [10-12], and studies that have shown the benefits of inquiry-based instruction in improving students’ qualitative conceptual knowledge [13], opportunities for students to explore relationships, to describe phenomena, and use observational evidence have been found lacking in the United…”
Background
Social Metaphorical Mapping of the Concept of Force “CHI‐KA‐RA” in Japanese
Suzuki, M. (2005) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690500206507 · Cited by 9
“White and Frederiksen (1998) collaborated with teachers to create a computerenhanced middle school science curriculum that engages students in learning about and reflecting on the processes of scientific inquiry as they construct increasingly complex models of force and motion phenomena.”
Background
Combining learning and assessment in assessment‐based gaming environments
Zapata‐Rivera, D., VanWinkle, W. H., Doyle, B., Buteux, A., & Bauer, M. I. (2009) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/17415650911005384 · Cited by 9
“Introduction Combining assessment and learning has been a long-sought-after goal of many researchers and educators (e.g. Black and Wiliam, 1998; Pellegrino et al., 1999; Sadler, 1989; Snow and Mandinach, 1991; White and Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Inquiry Resources Collection as a Boundary Object Supporting Meaningful Collaboration in a Wiki-Based Scientist-Teacher Community
Kim, H. J., & Herbert, B. (2011) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9342-z · Cited by 10
“Also, many teachers do not fully comprehend the nature of inquiry, do not sufficiently believe in the value of inquiry, and do not develop appropriate teaching approaches to engage students in an inquiry lesson (White and Frederiksen 1998).”
Background
Deriving better questions: creating better clinical instruction
Graffam, B. (2008) · The Clinical Teacher · doi:10.1111/j.1743-498x.2008.00212.x · Cited by 6
The Case for an Integrated Design Framework for Assessing Science Inquiry
Baxter, G. P., & Mislevy, R. J. (2004) · Cited by 9
Probing Teachers’ Lesson Planning: Promoting Metacognition
Eilam, B. (2017) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811711901309 · Cited by 10
“Prompts may be computerized (White & Frederiksen, 1998) or given on paper (Berthold et al., 2007).”
Background
A Simple Exercise Reveals the Way Students Think about Scientific Modeling.
Ruebush, L. E., Sulikowski, M. M., & North, S. W. (2009) · The journal of college science teaching · Cited by 9
Creating Informal Learning Environments on the World Wide Web
Wolfe, C. R. (2001) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012761891-3/50008-4 · Cited by 9
Developing students' understanding of scientific modeling
Schwarz, C. V. (1998) · Cited by 9
Integrating Evidence-Based Practices in Middle Science Reading
Kroeger, S. D., Burton, C., & Preston, C. D. (2009) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/004005990904100301 · Cited by 9
“When teachers avoid these complex processes, instructional content and pedagogy tend to focus on facts and description instead of cause and reason (Ward & Wandersee, 2001, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Partnerships in the Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE)
Slotta, J. D. (2002) · doi:10.11225/jcss.9.351 · Cited by 9
Fostering metacognition in the design studio: The effect of minimal interventions on architectural students’ metacognitive awareness
Yazıcı, G., & Doğan, F. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101651 · Cited by 10
Fostering preservice teachers’ design thinking by integrating generative AI and analytics-supported reflective assessment in a collaborative inquiry environment
Yang, Y., Chen, L., Sun, D., Zhu, W., & Pang, S. (2026) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105602 · Cited by 9
Distributed Revisiting: an Analytic for Retention of Coherent Science Learning
Svihla, V., Wester, M. J., & Linn, M. C. (2015) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2015.22.7 · Cited by 8
Exploring the mechanisms of data-supported reflective assessment for pre-service teachers’ knowledge building
Yang, Y., Feng, X., Zhu, G., & Sun, D. (2023) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2223238 · Cited by 8
“Re ﬂ ective assessment is characterized by learners ’ agency in and responsibility for planning, monitoring, and regulating their own and the collective inquiry and learning process (Scardamalia, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998; Yang, Chen, et al.,2020 ).”
Influential
The role of teachers’ social support in students’ emotional and cognitive presences in online learning
Wang, Y. (2024) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587919.2024.2346250 · Cited by 8
A study of faculty members' perceived utilization of best practices in distance learning course design and delivery and the role of instructional designers
You, J. (2010) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 8
Towards Supporting Scientific Inquiry in Computer Science Education
Schulz, S., & Niels Pinkwart, C. (2016) · Workshop in Primary and Secondary Computing Education · doi:10.1145/2978249.2978255 · Cited by 8
“Modeling is a widespread method for SI [32] and in CS.”
Method
Using Technology to Facilitate Modeling-Based Science Education: Lessons Learned from a Meta-analysis of Empirical Research
Lei, J., Luo, P. H., Wang, Q., Shen, J., Lee, S., & Chen, Y. (2016) · Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange · doi:10.18785/jetde.0902.04 · Cited by 8
Exploring shifts in the characteristics of US government-funded science curriculum materials and their (unintended) consequences
Roblin, N. P., Schunn, C. D., Bernstein, D., & McKenney, S. E. (2018) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2018.1441842 · Cited by 8
“…to result in substantially improved student outcomes, including learning gains (e.g. Cervetti, Barber, Dorph, Pearson, & Goldschmidt, 2012; Harris et al., 2015; Krajcik, McNeill, & Reiser, 2008), and improved attitudes toward science (e.g. Häussler & Hoffmann, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Comparing student, instructor, and expert perceptions of learner-centeredness in post-secondary biology classrooms
Heim, A. B., & Holt, E. A. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200524 · Cited by 10
First Steps in Dance Data Science
Bergner, Y., Mund, S., Chen, O., & Payne, W. C. (2019) · International Conference on Movement and Computing (MOCO) · doi:10.1145/3347122.3347137 · Cited by 8
“To make data science accessible, and to facilitate a scaffolded inquiry [32] approach to learning, we examine quantitative methods based on interpretable features and simple algorithms.”
Method
Evaluating the effect of using synchronous machine simulations to support traditional teaching methodology in electrical engineering degree courses
Ruiz-Rodriguez, F. J., & Torreglosa, J. P. (2020) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22224 · Cited by 8
“Ultimately, this process can help students establish relationships between simulated and real systems [49,64].”
Background
Middle School Science Teachers’ Conceptions of Assessment Practice Throughout a Year-long Professional Development Experience
Wilsey, M., Kloser, M. J., Borko, H., & Rafanelli, S. (2020) · Educational Assessment · doi:10.1080/10627197.2020.1756255 · Cited by 11
“In controlled experiments comparing students who do and do not reflect on their learning, those who engaged in self-reflection outgained other students, and low-achieving students showed the greatest gains (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
Development of INoSIT (Integration Nature of Science in Inquiry with Technology) Learning Models to Improve Science Literacy: A Preliminary studies
Takda, A., Jadmiko, B., & Erman, E. (2022) · Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA · doi:10.29303/jppipa.v8i1.957 · Cited by 8
“…learning science has a lot to do with knowledge and skills from one topic that is relevant to another subject (Mills et al. 2014) - Reflection is defined as the process of reflecting on anything in the learner's mind, suggesting how the learning process can be improved ( White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Background
The relationship between instructional scaffolding strategies and maintained situational interest
Lange, C. H., Gorbunova, A., Шмелева, Е., & Costley, J. (2022) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2022.2042314 · Cited by 10
“Additionally, it has been an e ﬀ ective tool to keep learners fully engaged in the learning process throughout the entirety of the lesson (White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
Method
Activity guide: an approach to scripted inquiry learning
Mulholland, P., Collins, T., Gaved, M., Wright, M., Sharples, M., Greenhalgh, C., Kerwalla, L., Eileen Scanlon, A., & Littleton, K. (2009) · Open Research Online (The Open University) · Cited by 8
Issues in Inquiry-Based Science Education Seen through Dewey's Theory of Inquiry.
Won, M. (2009) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · Cited by 8
Elective Self-Care Course Emphasizing Critical Reasoning Principles
Sibbald, D. (2011) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe759182 · Cited by 8

Authors: White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R.
Venue: Cognition and Instruction
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1998-03
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
Pages: 3-118
ISSN: 0737-0008 (ISSN-L)
1532-690X
DOI: 10.1207/s1532690xci1601_2
OpenAlex: W2029930609
Cited by: 1,394
References: 73
Citations by year: 2026: 21 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 82 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 75 · 2012: 79
FWCI: 124.28
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Cognition and Instruction (publishedVersion)
HAL (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
Keywords: scientific inquiry, metacognition, reflective assessment, inquiry cycle, junior high school science, force and motion, modeling, scaffolding, low-achieving students, urban education, educational disadvantage

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Inquiry, Modeling, and Metacognition: Making Science Accessible to All Students

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