The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implications for science instruction.

May combine two claims.

Carey et al. (1989) found that a majority of seventh graders believed that scientific knowledge is a faithful copy of nature and that scientific inquiry is a Baconian process of observing facts rather than a process of constructing theories to account for empirical observations.

“Carey et al. (1989) found that a majority of seventh graders believed that scientific knowledge is a faithful copy of nature and that scientific inquiry is a Baconian process of observing facts rather than a process of constructing theories to account for empirical observations.”

• cites Carey et al. (1989) sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Sherman and Kunda found that high-caffeine consumers were less persuaded by a study linking caffeine to disease and rated its methodology as less sound than low-caffeine consumers.

“Subjects who were high-caffeine consumers were less likely to be persuaded by the study, and they correspondingly rated various methodological aspects of the study as less sound than did low-caffeine consumers.”

• cites Sherman and Kunda (reported in Kunda, 1990)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Samarapungavan (1992) found that first graders prefer theories that are internally consistent, consistent with empirical evidence, and cover a broad range of evidence, and that a substantial majority of fifth graders additionally preferred non-ad hoc explanations.

“Samarapungavan (1992) found that first graders prefer theories that are internally consistent, that are consistent with empirical evidence, and that cover a broad range of evidence instead of a narrow range.She also found that a substantial majority of fifth graders additionally preferred explanations that are not ad hoc to those that are ad hoc.”

• cites Samarapungavan (1992) sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In peripheral theory change, the changes leave the theory's central hypotheses intact.

“In all of these cases, however, the changes leave the theory's central hypotheses intact.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Compared to scientists, science students may be remarkably open to new data.

“By this standard, it appears that compared to scientists, science students may be remarkably open to new data!”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Individuals who reject data use a wide variety of reasons; three very common forms of rejection are arguing that there was a fundamental methodological error in the way the data were obtained, arguing that the data were merely due to random variation, and declaring the data to be fraudulent.

“Individuals who reject data use a wide variety of reasons for the rejection; however, three very common forms of rejection are (a) arguing that there was a fundamental methodological error in the way the data were obtained, (b) arguing that the data were merely due to random variation, and (c) declaring the data to be fraudulent.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Wallace differentiated between the human body and the human intellect and developed separate theories to account for their origins.

“Thus, Wallace differentiated between the human body and the human intellect and developed separate theories to account for the origins of the two subtypes.”

• cites Wallace, 1889Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Brown and Clement (1992) found that children subtyped the principles of physics into three different subdomains.

“In science education, Brown and Clement (1992) found that children subtyped the principles of physics into three different subdomains.”

• cites Brown and Clement (1992)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Anomalous data do not always lead to belief change; students often find ways to discredit anomalous data and protect their preinstructional beliefs against the data.

“Thus, anomalous data do not always lead to belief change.Students often find ways to discredit anomalous data and protect their preinstructional beliefs against the data.”

• cites Champagne et al., 1985Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Lakatos distinguished between hard core propositions and protective belt propositions within a theory; hard core propositions cannot be altered without scrapping the entire theory, but protective belt propositions can be altered while preserving the key, central hypotheses.

“Lakatos (1970) has distinguished between two types of propositions within a theory: hard core propositions and protective belt propositions.Hard core propositions cannot be altered without scrapping the entire theory, but protective belt propositions can be altered while preserving the key, central hypotheses.”

• cites Lakatos, 1970 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Perhaps the most common grounds for rejecting data is methodological error.

“Perhaps the most common grounds for rejecting data is methodological error.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A very common form of peripheral change is subtyping.

“A very common form of peripheral change is subtyping.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The anomalous data in these instructional approaches are intended to cause students to become dissatisfied with their current theories, which cannot account for the anomalous data, and to adopt instead the target scientific theory, which successfully explains the data.

“The anomalous data are intended to cause students to become dissatisfied with their current theories, which cannot account for the anomalous data, and to adopt instead the target scientific theory, which successfully explains the data (e.g., Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982).”

• cites Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982Not checked yet

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• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Persuasive data are needed to convince students to abandon well-entrenched preinstructional theories.

May combine two claims.

The commonly observed phenomenon of compartmentalization among science learners can be viewed as a form of exclusion; it amounts to excluding classroom science data from everyday theories about how the physical world works.

“The commonly observed phenomenon of compartmentalization among science learners can also be viewed as a form of exclusion.”

• Also stated in: § Excluding Anomalous Data · plain

  “Compartmentalization amounts to excluding classroom science data from everyday theories about how the physical world works.”

• cites Osborne & Wittrock, 1983Not checked yet

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• cites Pines & West, 1986Not checked yet

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• cites Roth & Anderson, 1988Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other children adopt a two-earth theory in which there is a flat earth on which people live and a round earth up in space.

“Other children adopt a two-earth theory in which there is a flat earth on which people live and a round earth up in space.”

• cites Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Only one of the seven responses to anomalous data is to accept the data and change theories; the other six responses involve discounting the data in various ways in order to protect the preinstructional theory.

“We postulate that there are seven distinct forms of response to anomalous data, only one of which is to accept the data and change theories.The other six responses involve discounting the data in various ways in order to protect the preinstructional theory.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The current literature on science education includes many new instructional approaches that take students' preinstructional theories into account and are designed to convince students to change their theories.

“The current literature on science education includes many new instructional approaches that take students' preinstructional theories into account and are designed to convince students to change their theories.”

May combine two claims.

Students typically resist giving up their preinstructional beliefs; instead of abandoning or modifying them in the face of new, conflicting data and ideas, they often staunchly maintain old ideas and reject or distort new ideas.

“The second reason why understanding how students respond to contradictory information is crucial for science education is that students typically resist giving up their preinstructional beliefs.Instead of abandoning or modifying their preinstructional beliefs in the face of new, conflicting data and ideas, students often staunchly maintain old ideas and reject or distort new ideas.”

• cites Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992Not checked yet

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• cites Anderson & Smith, 1984Not checked yet

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• cites Champagne, Klopfer, & Anderson, 1980Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This peripheral modification of the theory accounted for the anomalous data but allowed the philosopher to retain the core belief that the moon was a perfect sphere.

“This peripheral modification of the theory accounted for the anomalous data but allowed the philosopher to retain the core belief that the moon was a perfect sphere.”

May combine two claims.

After looking through Galileo's telescope, one of Galileo's opponents conceded that he saw mountains on the moon but argued that the mountains were embedded in a perfectly transparent crystal sphere.

“After looking through Galileo's telescope, one of Galileo's opponents conceded that he saw mountains on the moon through the telescope.However, he argued that the mountains were embedded in a perfectly transparent crystal sphere”

• cites Drake, 1980, p. 48Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Placing anomalous data in abeyance leaves the individual's initial theory unchanged.

“In common with all of the earlier forms of response, placing the data in abeyance leaves the individual's initial theory unchanged.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peripheral theory change is the first response to anomalous data discussed that involves any change in an individual's initial theory.

“This is the first response to anomalous data that we have discussed that involves any change in an individual's initial theory.”

May combine two claims.

In some studies, major belief change takes more time and shows up only over years as students acquire additional knowledge; in other studies, some theory change in response to anomalous data occurs within one or a few experimental sessions or within several classroom lessons.

“In some studies, major belief change takes more time and shows up only over years as students acquire additional knowledge (e.g., Karmiloff-Smith, 1988;Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992).In other studies, some theory change in response to anomalous data occurs within one or a few experimental sessions or within several classroom lessons”

• cites Karmiloff-Smith, 1988 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992Not checked yet

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• cites Alvermann & Hynd, 1989Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

It seems probable that helping students achieve explicit metaconceptual knowledge of how theories relate to evidence would promote a more rational theory evaluation process.

“It certainly seems probable that helping students achieve explicit metaconceptual knowledge of how theories relate to evidence would promote a more rational theory evaluation process.”

May combine two claims.

Faulty ontological assumptions lead students to reject and fail to comprehend accepted scientific ideas, and thus to make theory-preserving responses to anomalous data.

“These faulty ontological assumptions not only lead students to reject accepted scientific ideas but also make it difficult for the students even to comprehend the accepted scientific ideas.Thus, they lead students to make theory-preserving responses to anomalous data.”

May combine two claims.

Several mistaken ontological beliefs have been found to resist change, including beliefs that electrons and photons move along a single discrete path, that time flows at a constant rate regardless of relative motion, that heat is a substance, and that force is something internal to a moving object.

“Examples of mistaken ontological beliefs that have been found to resist change are beliefs that objects like electrons and photons move along a single discrete path (Brewer & Chinn, 1991), that time flows at a constant rate regardless of relative motion (Brewer & Chinn, 1991;P. Hewson, 1982), that heat is a substance (Wiser, 1988), and that force is something internal to a moving object (McCloskey”

• cites Brewer & Chinn, 1991Not checked yet

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• cites P. Hewson, 1982 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Wiser, 1988Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Sometimes a belief is entrenched for reasons of personal self-image or for social expediency.

“Sometimes a belief is entrenched for reasons of personal self-image or for social expediency.”

May combine two claims.

Depending on its contents, background knowledge can lead an individual to reject or reinterpret anomalous data, or to accept the anomalous data and make either peripheral or core changes to the current theory.

“Depending on its contents, an individual's background knowledge can have very different effects on how the individual responds to anomalous data.On one hand, background knowledge can lead an individual to reject or reinterpret anomalous data.On the other hand, background knowledge can lead the individual to accept the anomalous data and to make either peripheral or core changes to the current”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The more entrenched a belief, the harder it should be to persuade an individual to change the belief.

“The more entrenched a belief, the harder it should be to persuade an individual to change the belief.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Chi (1992) argued that many misconceptions in the physical sciences are caused by faulty ontological underpinnings, namely, that concepts like heat, light, force, and current are believed by children to be a material substance.

“Chi (1992) has argued that many misconceptions in the physical sciences are caused by faulty ontological underpinnings, namely, that concepts like heat, light, force, and current are believed by children to be a material substance.”

• cites Chi (1992)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

An individual's background knowledge is an extremely potent factor in determining how the individual responds to anomalous data.

“An individual's background knowledge is an extremely potent factor in determining how the individual responds to anomalous data.”

May combine two claims.

Many school-aged children possess epistemological beliefs about the scientific enterprise that are likely to impede rational theory change, such as believing that learning science amounts to memorizing facts and that science does not apply to the everyday world.

“Moreover, many school-aged children possess epistemological beliefs about the scientific enterprise that are likely to impede rational theory change.For example, many students appear to believe that learning science amounts to memorizing facts and that science does not apply to the everyday world (Songer & Linn, 1991).”

• cites Songer & Linn, 1991Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Although children possess an adequate commonsense epistemology, they lack more sophisticated epistemological commitments based on the scientific cultural tradition, including commitments to testing hypotheses experimentally and using rigorous controls.

“However, although children possess an adequate commonsense epistemology, they undoubtedly lack more sophisticated epistemological commitments based on the scientific cultural tradition that began to develop during the Renaissance (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991); these include commitments to such ideas as testing hypotheses experimentally and using rigorous controls.”

• cites Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Attempts to coordinate theory and data involve three fundamental dimensions: whether the individual accepts the data as valid, whether the individual can provide an explanation for why the data are accepted or not accepted, and whether the individual changes his or her prior theory.

“Thus, attempts to coordinate theory and data involve three fundamental dimensions: (a) whether the individual accepts the data as valid, (b) whether the individual can provide an explanation for why the data are accepted or not accepted, and (c) whether the individual changes his or her prior theory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The seven categories can be derived from a logical analysis of the data evaluation and theory-change process.

“However, we also think that the seven categories can be derived from a logical analysis of the data evaluation and theory-change process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There are four characteristics of prior beliefs that are especially important in influencing how an individual responds to anomalous information: entrenchment of the current theory, ontological beliefs, epistemological commitments, and background knowledge.

“We postulate that there are four characteristics of prior beliefs that are especially important in influencing how an individual responds to anomalous information: (1) the entrenchment of the individual's current theory, (2) the individual's ontological beliefs, (3) the individual's epistemological commitments, and (4) the individual's background knowledge.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Rational, informed theory change requires that the student understand the new theory.

“And it is equally obvious that rational, informed theory change requires that the student understand the new theory.”

May combine two claims.

To avoid rejection, anomalous data must pass the test of credibility; credible data may produce exclusion, abeyance, reinterpretation, peripheral theory change, or theory change, but not rejection.

“To avoid rejection, anomalous data must pass the test of credibility.Data that are not credible will be rejected.Data that are credible may produce the responses of exclusion, abeyance, reinterpretation, peripheral theory change, or theory change, but not rejection.”

May combine two claims.

Scientists will not give up a theory unless a plausible alternative theory is available, and the same holds for science learners.

“T. Kuhn (1962) has argued that scientists will not give up a theory unless there is a plausible alternative theory available, and Posner et al. (1982) have made essentially the same argument about science learners.”

• cites T. Kuhn (1962)Not checked yet

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• cites Posner et al. (1982) sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A good scientific theory has at least five characteristics: accuracy, broad scope, consistency, simplicity, and fruitfulness.

“T. Kuhn (1977) has argued that a good scientific theory has at least five characteristics.”

• cites T. Kuhn (1977) sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There are three characteristics of anomalous data that influence response: credibility, ambiguity, and existence of multiple data to rule out prior theory-preserving responses.

“We propose that there are three characteristics of anomalous data that influence the response to such data: (1) the credibility of the data, ( 2) the ambiguity of the data, and ( 3) the existence of multiple data to rule out prior theory-preserving responses.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Thagard (1992) concludes that for most scientific revolutions, explanatory breadth of the new theory is the largest contributor to explanatory coherence.

“He (Thagard, 1992) concludes that “for most revolutions, the explanatory breadth of the new theory--how much it explains--is the largest contributor to explanatory coherence” (p.248).”

• cites Thagard, 1992 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Schank and Ranney (1991) found that subjects prefer theories that cover a broader scope of empirical data.

“Schank and Ranney (1991) have similarly found that subjects prefer theories that cover a broader scope of empirical data.”

• cites Schank and Ranney (1991)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

As a result, when children are presented with covariation information that contradicts a favored theory, they are not constrained to accept the information, and they find it easy to retain their favored theory.

“As a result, when children are presented with covariation information that contradicts a favored theory, they are not constrained to accept the information, and they find it easy to retain their favored theory.”

May combine two claims.

Instructional use of anomalous data in the classroom relies primarily on the idea that learners reject their own theory because it cannot accurately account for the anomalous data and accept the alternative because it does.

“Indeed, the instructional use of anomalous data in the classroom relies primarily on the idea of accuracy: learners will come to reject their own theory because it cannot accurately account for the anomalous data, and they will accept the alternative theory because it does account for the anomalous data.”

May combine two claims.

More credible communicators produce more belief change, and credibility is enhanced when the communicator is unbiased and an expert.

“Social psychologists have found that more credible communicators produce more belief change, and credibility is enhanced when the communicator is unbiased and when the communicator is an expert (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953;Maddux & Rogers, 1980;Reinard, 1988).”

• cites Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953Not checked yet

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• cites Maddux & Rogers, 1980Not checked yet

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• cites Reinard, 1988 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In the Petty and Cacioppo (1979) experiment, high-involvement subjects regarded stricter visitation policies more favorably, while low-involvement subjects were not affected.

“The persuasive message had no effect on low-involvement subjects, but it led high-involvement subjects to regard stricter visitation policies more favorably.”

• cites Petty and Cacioppo (1979)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Ontological beliefs tend to be deeply entrenched, so anomalous data that contradict these beliefs tend to produce theory-preserving responses.

“Ontological beliefs tend to be deeply entrenched, so that anomalous data that contradict these beliefs tend to produce theory-preserving responses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

It seems probable that deep processing goals can be aroused in science classrooms through personal involvement and through students knowing they will have to justify their judgments.

“And it seems probable that deep processing goals can be aroused in science classrooms through personal involvement and through students knowing that they will have to justify their judgments.”

May combine two claims.

Ambiguous data encourage reinterpretations; unambiguous data preclude such reinterpretations.

“Ambiguous data thus encourage reinterpretations; unambiguous data preclude such reinterpretations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Brown and Clement (1992) reported that increased use of hands-on experiences appeared to facilitate conceptual change in mechanics.

“Brown and Clement (1992) reported that increased use of hands-on experiences appeared to facilitate conceptual change in mechanics.”

• cites Brown and Clement (1992)Not checked yet

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May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In science education, there are two ways to rebut students' theory-preserving responses: anticipate objections in advance and prepare data, or find out post hoc and conduct further studies.

“In science education, like science itself, there are two ways to rebut students' theory-preserving responses.The first way is, again, to anticipate in advance what the grounds for rejection and reinterpretation will be and to prepare lines of data in advance to undermine those objections.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Brown and Clement (1992) reported that their second-year intervention was much more successful than the first, partly because they had a more detailed understanding of students' alternative conceptions.

“They report that the second year's intervention was much more successful than the first, and they believed that part of the reason was that in the second year, they had a much more detailed understanding of students' alternative conceptions.”

• cites Brown and Clement (1992)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

More entrenched beliefs lead to theory-preserving responses and make theory change more difficult.

“More entrenched beliefs lead to theory-preserving responses and make theory change more difficult.”

May combine two claims.

Allowing people to observe experimental results directly may enhance credibility and produce theory change more than reading about results.

“A fourth possible way to enhance credibility is to allow people to observe the experimental results directly.Thus, classroom demonstrations and laboratories might be more likely to produce theory change than simply having students read about an experimental result.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Stavy (1987, 1991) suggests that unambiguous data are more effective than ambiguous data in promoting theory change among science students.

“Research by Stavy (1987Stavy ( , 1991) ) suggests that unambiguous data are more effective than ambiguous data in promoting theory change among science students.”

• cites Stavy (1987Not checked yet

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• cites [1991]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

If people are personally involved with the issue, or expect to justify their reasoning, they process anomalous information deeply and are more likely to change their theories; otherwise they process superficially and theory change is less likely.

“If they are personally involved with the issue, or if they expect to have to justify their reasoning, people process anomalous information deeply and are more likely to change their theories.Otherwise, they are content to process the information superficially, and theory change is less likely.”

May combine two claims.

Background knowledge can facilitate rejection or reinterpretation and facilitate theory change, depending on its content.

“Background knowledge can, on one hand, facilitate rejection or reinterpretation and, on the otherhand, facilitate theory change, depending on the particular content of the background knowledge.”

May combine two claims.

In the history of science, unambiguous data against a theory sometimes nudge scientists toward eventual theory change, but often produce abeyance or peripheral change instead.

“In the history of science, unambiguous data against a theory sometimes nudge scientists toward eventual theory change (cf.Badash, 1966;Musgrave, 1976), but unambiguous data often produce abeyance or peripheral change instead.”

• cites Badash, 1966 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Musgrave, 1976 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In practice people frequently fail to process contradictory information deeply; they attend more to evidence that supports their beliefs than evidence that contradicts them.

“However, in practice people frequently fail to process contradictory information deeply; in particular, they attend much more to evidence that supports their beliefs than evidence that contradicts them (e.g., Galotti, 1989).”

• cites Galotti, 1989 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In Chaiken's (1980) study, subjects who expected to justify their opinions in a discussion with peers processed the arguments more deeply and were more convinced.

“The results showed that the subjects who expected to have to justify their opinions in a discussion with their peers processed the arguments more deeply and were more convinced by the arguments.”

• cites Chaiken's (1980) sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Some data are more easily reinterpretable than others; unambiguous data should increase the likelihood of theory change, while ambiguous data make reinterpretation easy.

“Although it is undoubtedly true that any data can be reinterpreted, it also seems clear that some data are more easily reinterpretable than others.In other words, some data are relatively unambiguous with respect to two competing theories; other data are relatively ambiguous.Unambiguous data should increase the likelihood of theory change; ambiguous data should make reinterpretation very easy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Students who are not motivated to process scientific evidence deeply are not likely to change their theories, or if they do, the change will be superficial.

“Students who are not motivated to process scientific evidence deeply are not likely to change their theories, or if they do change their theories, the change will be superficial, not involving a deep understanding of the new theory and why it is supported by the evidence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Some epistemological commitments, such as a commitment to consistency, foster theory change; others, such as a belief that science is a matter of memorizing facts, probably impede theory change.

“Some epistemological commitments, such as a commitment to consistency, foster theory change; others, such as a belief that science is a matter of memorizing facts, probably impede theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data that the individual already believes are perfectly credible.

“Finally, there is one form of data that is perfectly credible, data that the individual already believes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Less ambiguous data are less likely to be reinterpreted.

“Less ambiguous data are less likely to be reinterpreted.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Before students can even begin to evaluate a theory, they need a wealth of domain-specific background knowledge.

“Before students can even begin to evaluate a theory, they need a wealth of domain-specific background knowledge.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

To learn epistemological commitments appropriate to evaluating evidence and theories, students may need to participate in a community that regularly debates alternative theories, discusses responses to anomalous data, and evaluates evidence and theories.

“In other words, to learn epistemological commitments appropriate to evaluating evidence and theories, students may need to participate in a community that regularly debates alternative theories, discusses responses to anomalous data, and evaluates evidence and theories.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Table 3 presents 11 general instructional strategies that the authors hypothesize will foster reflective theory change.

“Table 3 presents 11 general instructional strategies that we hypothesize will foster reflective theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If the goal of instruction is theory change, students need some kind of access to a plausible alternative theory.

“But if the goal of instruction is theory change, students need some kind of access to a plausible alternative theory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

It is desirable for the alternative theory to be intelligible as well as plausible, but this may not be strictly necessary to permit theory change.

“It is desirable for the alternative theory to be intelligible as well as plausible, but this may not be strictly necessary to permit theory change.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vosniadou and Brewer (1992) argue that the hollow-earth model is an attempt to reconcile the notion that the earth is round with the student's entrenched belief that things fall downward.

“Vosniadou and Brewer (1992) argue that the hollow-earth model is an attempt to reconcile the notion that the earth is round with the student's entrenched belief that things fall downward.”

• cites Vosniadou and Brewer (1992)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Carey et al. (1989) developed a 3-week instructional unit blending an enculturation approach with some explicit instruction on the scientific method; as a result, students showed a marked increase in their understanding of the nature and purposes of scientific inquiry.

“In the domain of science, Carey et al. (1989) developed a 3-week instructional unit blending an enculturation approach with some explicit instruction on the scientific method.As a result of this short intervention, students showed a marked increase in their understanding of the nature and purposes of scientific inquiry.”

• cites Carey et al. (1989) sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Deep processing makes theory change more likely and can be enhanced by fostering personal involvement and ensuring students know they will have to justify their reasoning.

“Deep processing makes theory change more likely and can be enhanced in at least two ways: by fostering personal involvement in the issue and by ensuring that students know that they will have to justify their reasoning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In addition to domain-specific background knowledge, domain-general background knowledge can help promote reflective theory change.

“In addition to domain-specific background knowledge, domain-general background knowledge can help promote reflective theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Without addressing the most entrenched components of a theory, fundamental theory change may be very difficult.

“Without addressing these components, fundamental theory change may be very difficult.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

To change an entrenched theory, it may be necessary to identify the crucial components of the theory that are most deeply entrenched.

“Thus, to change an entrenched theory, it may be necessary to figure out precisely why the theory is entrenched, that is, to identify those crucial components of the theory that are most deeply entrenched.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

More credible data are less likely to be rejected.

“More credible data are less likely to be rejected.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

To foster reflective theory change, the teacher must orchestrate four clusters of factors: students' prior knowledge, the alternative theory, the anomalous data, and students' processing strategies.

“To do so, the teacher must orchestrate the same four clusters of factors that we discussed in the previous section: the students' prior knowledge, the alternative theory, the anomalous data, and the students' processing strategies.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vosniadou (1992) argues that to lead the student to change the hollow-earth model, it is essential to address the entrenched belief that things fall downward.

“Vosniadou (1992) argues that in order to lead the student to change the hollow-earth model, it is essential to address the entrenched belief that things fall downward.”

• cites Vosniadou (1992)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Theory change is more likely when students are presented with an alternative theory that includes a plausible mechanism.

“We argued earlier that theory change is more likely when students are presented with an alternative theory that includes a plausible mechanism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A key to plausibility is an explanatory physical mechanism.

“A key to plausibility is an explanatory physical mechanism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Multiple experiments can make both rejection and reinterpretation less likely.

“And multiple experiments can make both rejection and reinterpretation less likely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Chi (1992) proposes that the way to lead students through ontological shifts is by explicit instruction: students should be told that physics entities belong to a different ontological category.

“Chi (1992) proposes that the way to lead students through these ontological shifts is by explicit instruction: students should “be told that physics entities belong to a different ontological category” (p.142).”

• cites Chi (1992)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Because a crucial part of coming to understand a theory is understanding little by little how the theory explains an array of data, the reiterations of the sequence of learning events are crucial to developing an accurate understanding of the alternative theory.

“Because a crucial part of coming to understand a theory is understanding little by little how the theory explains an array of data, the reiterations of the sequence of learning events are crucial to developing an accurate understanding of the alternative theory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Issue involvement might be promoted by having students explain everyday experiences and solve everyday problems.

“Issue involvement might be promoted by having students explain everyday experiences and solve everyday problems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

One way of making sure that data are unambiguous is to choose data that are perceptually obvious.

“One way of making sure that data are unambiguous is to choose data that are perceptually obvious.”

May combine two claims.

The series of anomalous data does not only lead students toward theory change; it also helps them refine their understanding of the new theory.

“The series of anomalous data does not only lead students toward theory change; it also helps them refine their understanding of the new theory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The alternative theory should not be a superior theory only from the perspective of scientists; it should provide a better account of the data that students have available to them.

“But it should not be a superior theory only from the perspective of scientists; it should provide a better account of the data that students have available to them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Students may view data as more credible if they understand that the data have been gathered according to accepted principles.

“Students may view data as more credible if they understand that the data have been gathered according to accepted principles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Having students justify their reasoning should come naturally in an environment in which students are discussing competing theories for phenomena.

“Having students justify their reasoning should come naturally in an environment in which students are discussing competing theories for phenomena.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

For belief change to occur in any of these domains, it is important to understand how people respond to anomalous information, and it is crucial to understand the conditions that make reflective theory change more likely.

“For belief change to occur in any of these domains, it is important to understand how people respond to anomalous information, and it is crucial to understand the conditions that make reflective theory change more likely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If computerized simulations of data are presented, students may need to be convinced that the simulation faithfully mimics reality.

“If computerized simulations of data are presented, students may need to be convinced that the simulation faithfully mimics reality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Teachers may want to appeal to real-world data that students already know about; this can help reduce compartmentalization, in addition to promoting theory change.

“Finally, teachers may want to appeal to real-world data that students already know about.This can help reduce compartmentalization, in addition to promoting theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Factors influence which of these responses an individual will choose when faced with anomalous data.

“In the second section, we discussed factors that influence which of these responses an individual will choose when faced with anomalous data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Because a single experiment will often fail to convince doubters, introducing multiple lines of data may be helpful.

“Because a single experiment will often fail to convince doubters, introducing multiple lines of data may be helpful.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Students should sometimes be exposed to less credible data, ambiguous data, and single lines of data.

“However, we also believe that students should sometimes be exposed to less credible data, ambiguous data, and single lines of data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Anomalous data are more likely to promote theory change when they are credible and unambiguous and when multiple lines of data are presented.

“Anomalous data are more likely to promote theory change when they are credible and unambiguous and when multiple lines of data are presented.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

An intelligible alternative theory may not be strictly necessary for theory change, but it certainly is critical for reflective theory change.

“As we discussed earlier, an intelligible alternative theory may not be strictly necessary for theory change, but it certainly is critical for reflective theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There are seven forms of response to anomalous data: ignoring the anomalous data, rejecting the data, excluding the data from the current theory, holding the data in abeyance, reinterpreting the data, making peripheral changes to the current theory, and changing the theory.

“In the first section, we proposed that there are seven forms of response to anomalous data: (a) ignoring the anomalous data, (b) rejecting the data, (c) excluding the data from the current theory, (d) holding the data in abeyance, (e) reinterpreting the data, (f) making peripheral changes to the current theory, and (g) changing the theory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It appears desirable for the teacher to know what particular competing theories the children hold, so that appropriate, unambiguous anomalous data can be chosen.

“Therefore, it appears desirable for the teacher to know what particular competing theories the children hold, so that appropriate, unambiguous anomalous data can be chosen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The analyses presented in this report provide insights into how to organize science instruction that uses anomalous data.

“The analyses presented in this report provide insights into how to organize science instruction that uses anomalous data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Awareness of some general criteria for evaluating anomalous data may help protect students against blind theory change.

“This awareness of some general criteria for evaluating anomalous data may help protect them against blind theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Understanding how people respond to anomalous data is crucial to understanding the process of theory change.

“In this report, we have argued that understanding how people respond to anomalous data is crucial to understanding the process of theory change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is good evidence that theory change is facilitated by making the alternative theory available to students.

“There is good evidence, then, that theory change is facilitated by making the alternative theory available to students.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It seems likely that the teacher can promote deep processing strategies by promoting issue involvement and requiring students to justify their reasoning.

“It seems likely that the teacher can promote deep processing strategies by promoting issue involvement and requiring students to justify their reasoning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Live demonstrations and hands-on experiences may enhance credibility.

“Live demonstrations and hands-on experiences may enhance credibility.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

By selecting multiple lines of credible, unambiguous data, the teacher may be able to make theory change more likely.

“By selecting multiple lines of credible, unambiguous data, the teacher may be able to make theory change more likely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Regardless of how students finally learn about the scientifically accepted alternative theory, it is desirable that the alternative theory be of high quality, in terms of the criteria of accuracy, scope, and consistency.

“Regardless of how students finally learn about the scientifically accepted alternative theory, it is desirable that the alternative theory be of high quality, in terms of the criteria of accuracy, scope, and consistency.”