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Mechanics and Energetics of Human Locomotion on Sand
Abstract
Moving about in nature often involves walking or running on a soft yielding substratum such as sand, which has a profound effect on the mechanics and energetics of locomotion. Force platform and cinematographic analyses were used to determine the mechanical work performed by human subjects during walking and running on sand and on a hard surface. Oxygen consumption was used to determine the energetic cost of walking and running under the same conditions. Walking on sand requires 1.6–2.5 times more mechanical work than does walking on a hard surface at the same speed. In contrast, running on sand requires only 1.15 times more mechanical work than does running on a hard surface at the same speed. Walking on sand requires 2.1–2.7 times more energy expenditure than does walking on a hard surface at the same speed; while running on sand requires 1.6 times more energy expenditure than does running on a hard surface. The increase in energy cost is due primarily to two effects: the mechanical work done on the sand, and a decrease in the efficiency of positive work done by the muscles and tendons.
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Significant elevations in walking metabolism above treadmill values on loose and slippery terrain are well documented.
“In the last case, significant elevations in walking metabolism above treadmill values on loose and slippery terrain are well documented (6, 16), but asphalt-treadmill comparisons have been inconsistent (17, 18) and consideration of other relevant surfaces, like grass, have been limited.”
From Real-world walking economy: can laboratory equations predict field energy expenditure? (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
The impact of terrain on human walking speed can be determined, but remains unknown for a heavily loaded camel.
“Similarly, the impact of terrain on human walking speed can be determined (Lejeune, Willems and Heglund 1998; Soule and Goldman 1972) but remains unknown for a heavily loaded camel.”
From Building a model to reconstruct the hellenistic and roman road networks of the eastern desert of Egypt, a semi-empirical approach based on modern travelers’ itineraries (2021) · cites this paper as Lejeune, Willems and Heglund 1998
The impact of terrain on the speed of a heavily loaded camel is unknown.
“Similarly, the impact of terrain on human walking speed can be determined (Lejeune, Willems and Heglund 1998; Soule and Goldman 1972) but remains unknown for a heavily loaded camel.”
From Building a model to reconstruct the hellenistic and roman road networks of the eastern desert of Egypt, a semi-empirical approach based on modern travelers’ itineraries (2021) · cites this paper as Lejeune, Willems and Heglund 1998
Loose sand can double the metabolic cost of walking compared to a smooth, hard surface.
“For example, loose sand can double the cost compared to a smooth, hard surface [1,2].”
From Human walking in the real world: interactions between terrain type, gait parameters, and energy expenditure (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
The metabolic energy cost for human walking varies considerably with terrain.
“The metabolic energy cost for human walking varies considerably with terrain.”
From Human walking in the real world: interactions between terrain type, gait parameters, and energy expenditure (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
The greater COT values for the rough surface likely reflect greater rates of mechanical work performed on the center of mass and the substrate itself.
“The greater COT values for the rough surface likely reflects: greater rates of mechanical work performed on the center of mass and the substrate itself (Lejeune et al., 1998)”
From Preferred walking speed on rough terrain: is it all about energetics? (2019) · cites this paper as Lejeune et al., 1998
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Metadata
- Authors
- Lejeune, T. M., Willems, P. A., & Heglund, N. C.
- Affiliations
- Université catholique de Louvain , Place P. de Coubertin , 1 B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Biology
- Publisher
- The Company of Biologists
- Published
- 1998-07-01
- Volume
- 201
- Issue
- 13
- Pages
- 2071-2080
- ISSN
- 0022-0949 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-9145
- OpenAlex
- W2146393466
- Cited by
- 363
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DIAL (Catholic University of Leuven) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Lower Extremity Biomechanics and Pathologies
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Balance, Gait, and Falls Prevention
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
- Keywords
- human locomotion, mechanical work, energy expenditure, oxygen consumption, muscle efficiency, gait energetics
- MeSH terms
- Biomechanical Phenomena, Energy Metabolism, Humans, Oxygen Consumption, Running, Soil, Tendons, Walking, Muscle, Skeletal
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