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Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity
Open accessAbstract
Western lifestyles differ markedly from those of our hunter-gatherer ancestors, and these differences in diet and activity level are often implicated in the global obesity pandemic. However, few physiological data for hunter-gatherer populations are available to test these models of obesity. In this study, we used the doubly-labeled water method to measure total daily energy expenditure (kCal/day) in Hadza hunter-gatherers to test whether foragers expend more energy each day than their Western counterparts. As expected, physical activity level, PAL, was greater among Hadza foragers than among Westerners. Nonetheless, average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size. The metabolic cost of walking (kcal kg(-1) m(-1)) and resting (kcal kg(-1) s(-1)) were also similar among Hadza and Western groups. The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure. We hypothesize that human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Doubly labeled water measurements in Hadza hunter-gatherers show that, despite higher physical activity levels and lower body fat than Westerners, their total daily energy expenditure is similar after controlling for body size. The paper argues that obesity differences between populations are more likely driven by energy intake than by reduced energy expenditure from Western lifestyles.
Key findings
- Hadza adults had lower body fat than Western adults: Hadza women 20.9±4.6% and men 13.5±4.2%, versus Western women 37.9±7.0% and men 22.5±5.0%.
- TEE did not differ between Hadza and Western groups after controlling for fat-free mass and age: Hadza women 1877±364 kCal/day vs Western women 2347±360 kCal/day; Hadza men 2649±395 kCal/day vs Western men 3053±464 kCal/day; lifestyle had no effect on TEE (women: F(139)=0.18, p=0.67; men: F(49)=0.17, p=0.68).
- Physical activity level was higher among Hadza men (2.26±0.48) than Western men (1.81±0.21; F(43)=13.07, p=0.001), and slightly higher among Hadza women (1.78±0.30) than Western women (1.68±0.22; F(162)=3.80, p=0.05).
- Farming populations had higher TEE than predicted for body size, while Hadza did not differ from market-economy populations (t(155)=−0.35, p=0.73); farming groups had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t=2.76, p=0.006).
Methods
- TEE was measured using doubly labeled water over an 11-day period in 30 Hadza adults (13 men ages 18–65, 17 women ages 18–75); PAL was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR.
- Daily walking distance was measured with GPS in Hadza subjects; resting metabolic rate and walking cost were measured with portable respirometry in subsets (RMR n=19; walking cost n=14).
- Comparative analyses used previous DLW studies and new U.S. adult measurements (n=68), plus a population-level meta-analysis of 198 single-sex cohorts representing 4,972 subjects; generalized linear models controlled for fat-free mass, age, sex, and body size where applicable.
Limitations
- The paper states it was not an intervention study: it examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition but did not test the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.
- The paper states that TEE and PAL measurements of other traditional populations, preferably hunter-gatherers, are needed to assess whether the Hadza pattern is typical of human foragers.
- The paper notes that BMR was estimated rather than measured for Hadza subjects, and that fat-free mass was unavailable for most populations in population-level analyses, so total body mass was used as a body-size index; evident from the text, Hadza subsamples for RMR and walking cost were small (n=19 and n=14), and the comparative dataset combines heterogeneous prior studies.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“TEE among Hadza adults was strongly related to body size, specifically fat free mass (FFM) (r2 = 0.66, n = 30, p<0.001; Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nonetheless, average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“In multivariate comparisons of TEE controlling for FFM and age, Hadza women’s energy expenditure was similar to that of Western women (n = 186) and Hadza men’s TEE was similar to Western men (n = 53); lifestyle had no effect on TEE (women: F(139) = 0.18, p = 0.67; men: F(49) = 0.17, p = 0.68) (Fig. 1, Table S1).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“TEE among Hadza and Westerners was indistinguishable when controlling for lean mass and fat mass (common proxies for non-activity metabolic costs) despite differences in lifestyle and estimated PAL.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In comparisons among individual subjects, female Bolivian farmers [13] had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women (p<0.001 both comparisons, Table 1), and farming groups (n = 3) had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t = 2.76, p = 0.006, Table S1) (Fig. 1, 2).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“In comparisons among individual subjects, female Bolivian farmers [13] had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women (p<0.001 both comparisons, Table 1), and farming groups (n = 3) had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t = 2.76, p = 0.006, Table S1) (Fig. 1, 2).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] H Kashiwazaki, 1995, Energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water method in Bolivian Aymara living in a high altitude agropastoral community., Am J Clin Nutr source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, individual variation in daily walking distance did not explain variation in TEE.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“but TEE was not correlated with mean daily travel distance (F(28) = 0.75, p = 0.39) (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The metabolic cost of walking (kcal kg−1 m−1) and resting (kcal kg−1 s−1) were also similar among Hadza and Western groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“RMR for Hadza adults measured while sitting averaged 11% above predicted BMR [27], within the range of values (7–35%) reported for other populations [35].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the Hadza likely perform traditional foraging tasks (e.g., digging tubers or chopping tree limbs for honey) more efficiently than unacculturated Westerners can [34], comparisons of activities common across cultures do not indicate that Hadza muscle and locomotor physiology inherently more efficient.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In multivariate comparisons controlling for mass, height, sex, and age, body fat percentages for Hadza adults were lower than individuals from Western (U.S. and Europe) populations (F(228) = 22.72, p<0.001).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Further, while Hadza differed from Western populations in body fat percentage (F(202) = 44.05, p<0.001), variation in adiposity both within and between populations was not correlated with PAL (F(207) = 0.36, p = 0.55) (Fig. 3) nor with TEE (F(209) = 3.02, p = 0.08, β = 12.06; note that the effect of TEE on adiposity, while not statistically significant, is positive in this sample).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, TEE of Hadza women who were pregnant or lactating (n = 8; 1 pregnant, 7 lactating) was no different from other Hadza women (n = 9; F(16) = 0.96, p = 0.35) after controlling for FFM (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, while Hadza differed from Western populations in body fat percentage (F(202) = 44.05, p<0.001), variation in adiposity both within and between populations was not correlated with PAL (F(207) = 0.36, p = 0.55) (Fig. 3) nor with TEE (F(209) = 3.02, p = 0.08, β = 12.06; note that the effect of TEE on adiposity, while not statistically significant, is positive in this sample).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
In the paper
“Daily walking distances for Hadza women (mean 5.8, std. dev. ±1.7 km/day) and men (11.4±2.1 km/day) were significantly different (p<0.001, t-test), consistent with previous measurements in hunting and gathering societies [10].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] FW Marlowe, 2005, Hunter-gatherers and human evolution., Evol Anth source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Estimated daily energy expenditure on walking (kCal/day) accounted for an average of 6.7% (±1.9%) of TEE among Hadza women and 11.0% (±3.4%) among Hadza men (Text S1), but TEE was not correlated with mean daily travel distance (F(28) = 0.75, p = 0.39) (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is TEE statistically indistinguishable between Westerners and Hadza foragers, but the range of TEE within Western, foraging, and farming populations largely overlap, both at the individual and population levels (Table 1, Fig. 1, 2).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regressing TEE on estimated BMR suggests that group differences in PAL were related to differences in body size, as the Hadza are significantly smaller than their Western counterparts (Table 1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Measurements of TEE among Hadza hunter-gatherers challenge the view that Western lifestyles result in abnormally low energy expenditure, and that decreased energy expenditure is a primary cause of obesity in developed countries.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, because TEE is correlated with estimated BMR with a slope <1.0, PAL (the ratio of TEE/BMR) tends to be greater among smaller individuals; this is particularly evident among men in our sample (Fig. S3).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We hypothesize that human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“We hypothesize that TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
In the paper
“Physical activity has important, positive effects on health [39], and increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs [40].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] 2010, Global recommendations on physical activity for health. World Health Organization, Geneva.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Power analyses indicated that sample sizes were sufficient to detect a 4.2% difference in mean TEE (Hadza vs. Western, α = 0.05) in comparisons among women (power 97%) and 7.6% difference among men (power 93%).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results were unchanged when Hadza were compared to all market-economy individuals, or when body mass was substituted for FFM (Table S1), or when sexes were combined for analyses (lifestyle: F(189) = 0.25, p = 0.62).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the large Western sample (n = 239), a test for homogeneity of slopes revealed that men and women differed in the relationship between FFM and TEE (F(238) = 2.68, p<0.001). Slope heterogeneity violates the assumptions of ANCOVA and other GLM comparisons, and thus men and women were compared separately in multivariate analyses of TEE.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Physical activity has important, positive effects on health [39], and increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs [40].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] JP Chaput, 2011, Physical activity plays an important role in body weight regulation. J Obes. 2011.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The Hadza are a population of hunter-gatherers living in a savannah-woodland environment in Northern Tanzania; their traditional foraging lifestyle has been documented extensively in previous work [17].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] FW Marlowe, 2010, The Hadza: Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania. Univ. California Berkeley.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analyzing males and females separately does not affect the pattern of population comparisons; results from combined-sex analyses were similar (see below).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This view is consistent with Sahlins’ [47] proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an “original affluence,” spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day, as well as a recent study indicating that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food [48].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] M Sahlins, 1972, Stone Age Economics. Aldine, Chicago.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tests for homogeneity of slopes revealed that slopes were similar among Western and Hadza women (F(201) = 0.36, p = 0.55) and among Western and Hadza men (F(64) = 0.77, p = 0.38).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We hypothesize that TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Humans are known to have greater TEE than orangutans [50], a closely related ape, but have low TEE compared to other eutherian mammals [50], [51].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that this was not an intervention study; we examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition in hunter-gatherers and Westerners, but did not examine the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Institutional approval and informed consent were obtained prior to data collection.”
- Also stated in: § Ethics Statement · plain
“Institutional approvals, including university (Washington University Institutional Review Board) and all cognizant local governmental agencies (including Tanzanian National Institute for Medical Research and Commission for Science and Technology), were obtained prior to conducting this study. All subjects gave their informed, verbal consent prior to participation.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Ethics Statement · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, while Western diets are certainly more sugar-rich and energy-dense than more “traditional” diets and wild foods [4], [8], [9], many hunter-gatherers seasonally consume a large portion of their daily calories as honey [10], [11] (Fig. S2), which has high concentrations of glucose and fructose [12].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] AM Prentice, 2003, Fast foods, energy density and obesity: a possible mechanistic link Obesity Reviews
- Not checked yetcites [8] MJ Schoeninger, 2001, Composition of tubers used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania., J Food Comp Analysis source
- Not checked yetcites [9] S Murray, 2001, Nutritional composition of some wild plant foods and honey used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania., J Food Comp Analysis source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because it was not feasible to measure basal metabolic rate (BMR, kCal/day), we calculated physical activity level (PAL) as TEE/estimated BMR (Methods).”
- Also stated in: § Measuring TEE using Doubly Labeled Water · plain
“Physical activity level (PAL) was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR for each subject following previous studies [13]–[16].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13]–[16]
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Measuring TEE using Doubly Labeled Water · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Including fat mass as an independent variable modestly improved the fit of multivariate models for TEE but did not affect the pattern of results (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since energy throughput in these populations is unlikely to burn the extra calories provided, such efforts may unintentionally increase the incidence of excess adiposity and associated metabolic complications such as insulin resistance.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ensure that incomplete measures of daily travel did not skew travel estimates downward, measurements were only considered to represent a full day of travel if the GPS device captured 10 or more hours that day; incomplete recordings were excluded from subsequent analysis.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Resting Metabolic Rate and Walking Cost
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“This view is consistent with Sahlins’ [47] proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an “original affluence,” spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day, as well as a recent study indicating that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food [48].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] S Bowles, 2011, Cultivation of cereals by the first farmers was not more productive than foraging., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Notably, metabolic measurements are lacking for hunter-gatherer societies, whose diet and lifestyle provide the best models for studies of human evolution [10].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] FW Marlowe, 2005, Hunter-gatherers and human evolution., Evol Anth source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The proximate cause of weight gain is energy imbalance, with food energy intake exceeding total energy expenditure.
“The proximate cause of weight gain is energy imbalance, with food energy intake (kCal/day) exceeding total energy expenditure (kCal/day), but the societal causes of the global obesity pandemic remain a focus of debate [1]–[7].”
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The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Despite substantially higher levels of physical activity, total daily energy expenditure among hunter-gatherers in Africa’s savannahs today is largely similar to that of adults living in modern European or US cities, where obesity prevalence is high83.”
From Joint international consensus statement for ending stigma of obesity (2020) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This connectivity would facilitate ready dispersal by hunter-gatherers with an average daily foraging range of 10–15 km (41, 42).”
From Humans, water, and the colonization of Australia (2016) · cites this paper as [42]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, studies over the past decade or more have questioned the role of sedentary lifestyle as an explanation for increased obesity rates in extant societies.84”
From Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity (2025) · cites this paper as [84]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although the case for physical inactivity as a cause of obesity is weak,84 there is clear evidence that it contributes to adverse metabolic effects associated with obesity.”
From Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity (2025) · cites this paper as [84]
In the citing paper
“In other subsistence groups where activity levels and energy expenditure have been estimated, sample sizes are often small and of restricted age ranges, e.g. [11], [12].”
From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Body fat percentage has been shown to be unrelated to PAL and energy expenditure in Western populations as well [11], [54].”
From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Second, Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania show similar total daily energy expenditure as Westerners despite displaying higher PALs, and their body fat percentage was unrelated to PAL or energetic expenditure [11].”
From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(155) = -0.35reported p = .73 · recomputed p = .727
“t(155) = −0.35, p = .73”
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
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“RMR for Hadza adults measured while sitting averaged 11% above predicted BMR [27], within the range of values (7–35%) reported for other populations [35].”
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“As in many other forager societies [10], there is a sexual division of foraging effort; Hadza men hunt game and gather honey, while Hadza women gather plant foods.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationA guide to analysis of mouse energy metabolism
Tschöp, M. H., Speakman, J. R., Arch, J. R. S., Auwerx, J., Brüning, J. C., Chan, L., Eckel, R. H., Farese, R. V., Galgani, J. E., Hambly, C., et al. (2012) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth.1806 · Cited by 813 · cited 1×
“We tested for differences in TEE and PAL between lifestyle groups while controlling for FFM, age, and other variables using generalized linear modeling (GLM), an approach recommended by Tschop and colleagues [32].”
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Gonzalez, J. T., Batterham, A. M., Atkinson, G., & Thompson, D. (2023) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.02.003 · Cited by 36
“differed between Hadza and Western samples by ~30 kg (~60%–70%) [1].”
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Schnorr, S. L., Crittenden, A. N., Venema, K., Marlowe, F. W., & Henry, A. G. (2015) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22805 · Cited by 32
Self-citationSite Distribution at the Edge of the Palaeolithic World: A Nutritional Niche Approach
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Westerterp, K. R. (2015) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-015-3135-7 · Cited by 30
“Additionally, a recent study showed that daily energy expenditure was similar for subjects with Western lifestyles and traditionally living Hazda hunter–gatherers in a savannah-woodland environment in Northern Tanzania (Pontzer et al. 2012).”
BackgroundThe contribution of behavioural science to nutrition: Appetite control
Blundell, J. E. (2017) · Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1111/nbu.12279 · Cited by 31
“In addition, recently some anthropologists 393 have introduced evolutionary theory and field data on primitive tribes into the arguments 394 about the overall balance of energy (in and out) (e.g. Pontzer et al. 2012).”
BackgroundEnergetic cost of walking in fossil hominins
Vidal‐Cordasco, M., Mateos, A., Zorrilla‐Revilla, G., Prado‐Nóvoa, O., & Rodrı́guez, J. (2017) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23301 · Cited by 25
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“For example, in humans about 12–24% of total body mass is body fat, whereas fat accounts for <10% of body mass in chimpanzees (Pontzer et al. 2012; Zihlman and Bolter 2015).”
BackgroundBello-Alonso, P., Ríos-Garaizar, J., Panera, J., Rubio‐Jara, S., Pérez‐González, A., Rojas, R. F., Baquedano, E., Mabulla, A. Z. P., Domínguez‐Rodrigo, M., & Santonja, M. (2021) · Quaternary Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106980 · Cited by 28
Self-citationMunn, A. J., Dawson, T. J., McLeod, S. R., Dennis, T. E., & Maloney, S. K. (2013) · Journal of Comparative Physiology B · doi:10.1007/s00360-013-0741-8 · Cited by 26
Dietary trends and the decline in male reproductive health
Whittaker, J. (2023) · HORMONES · doi:10.1007/s42000-023-00431-z · Cited by 26
“This is arguably the leading cause of the global obesity and diabetes pandemics [18, 150, 151].”
BackgroundWood, B. M., & Gilby, I. C. (2017) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674982642-010 · Cited by 26
Self-citationAn Evolutionary Perspective on Sedentary Behavior
Speakman, J. R. (2019) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.201900156 · Cited by 27
The (dys)regulation of energy storage in obesity
Levin, B. E., Geary, N., & Lutz, T. A. (2025) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00002.2024 · Cited by 27
WILLIS, E. A., Creasy, S. A., Saint‐Maurice, P. F., KEADLE, S. K., PONTZER, H., Schoeller, D. A., Troiano, R. P., & MATTHEWS, C. E. (2021) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002759 · Cited by 26
Self-citationExercise-Induced Adipose Tissue Thermogenesis and Browning: How to Explain the Conflicting Findings?
Zhu, Y., Qi, Z., & Ding, S. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232113142 · Cited by 27
“was about the same as that of sedentary people [101].”
BackgroundSarma, M. S., Boyette, A. H., Lew‐Levy, S., Miegakanda, V., Kilius, E., Samson, D. R., & Gettler, L. T. (2020) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24075 · Cited by 24
Dietary Regulation of Memory T Cells
Collins, N. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21124363 · Cited by 25
“The ability to constantly access and excessively consume food with a high fat content has likely arisen very recently in human history [70].”
BackgroundDrenowatz, C. J., Hill, J. O., Peters, J. C., Soriano‐Maldonado, A., & Blair, S. N. (2016) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2016.228 · Cited by 23
Total energy expenditure of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) of different ages
Rimbach, R., Amireh, A., Allen, A. S., Hare, B. A., Guarino, E., Kaufman, C., Salomons, H., & Pontzer, H. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.242218 · Cited by 23
Self-citationCronise, R. J., Sinclair, D. A., & Bremer, A. A. (2014) · Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders · doi:10.1089/met.2014.0027 · Cited by 24
“97 This suggests that dramatic differences in lifestyle activity have minimal effects on total energy expenditure and that variances in obesity prevalence among populations result primarily from differences in energy intake rather than expenditure.”
Lightfoot, J. T. (2013) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2013/821678 · Cited by 22
“Thus, if modern data were collected on the Ju/’hoansi, whether this data truly represented a Paleolithic hunter/gatherer lifestyle would be a fair question—as it is with the Hadza data of Pontzer and colleagues [42].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe energetics of movement, from exercise to ecology and evolution
Pontzer, H. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.247988 · Cited by 25
Self-citationRuby, B. C., Cuddy, J. S., Hailes, W. S., Dumke, C. L., Slivka, D. R., Shriver, T. C., & Schoeller, D. A. (2015) · Comparative Exercise Physiology · doi:10.3920/cep140025 · Cited by 20
The Mystery of Energy Compensation
Halsey, L. G. (2021) · Physiological and Biochemical Zoology · doi:10.1086/716467 · Cited by 22
“Published by The physical activity levels represented by those groups (Dugas et al. 2011; Pontzer et al. 2012; Pontzer 2018).”
BackgroundHow can physical activity facilitate a sustainable future? Reducing obesity and chronic disease
Stensel, D. J. (2023) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665123002203 · Cited by 23
Gray, L. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14121452 · Cited by 21
The provisioned primate: patterns of obesity across lemurs, monkeys, apes and humans
Pontzer, H. (2023) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2022.0218 · Cited by 19
“Studies of captive chimpanzees [8], wild baboons [48] and humans [67] suggest that body mass is positively related to adiposity among primates, but more data is needed.”
BackgroundSelf-citationPrimate energy input and the evolutionary transition to energy-dense diets in humans
Simmen, B., Pasquet, P., Masi, S., Koppert, G. J. A., Wells, J. C. K., & Hladik, C. M. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.0577 · Cited by 21
“In some hunter-gatherer societies, the cost of ranging is estimated to be 31% greater 279 than in chimpanzees due to longer distances travelled daily and larger body mass [2,8,40].”
BackgroundWhy Do Humans Hunt Cooperatively?
Morin, E., Bird, D. W., Winterhalder, B. P., & Bird, R. B. (2024) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/732354 · Cited by 20
Experimental approaches to the development of use-wear traces on volcanic rocks: basalts
Bello-Alonso, P., Ríos-Garaizar, J., Panera, J., Martín‐Perea, D., Rubio‐Jara, S., Pérez‐González, A., Rojas-Mendoza, R., Domínguez‐Rodrigo, M., Baquedano, E., & Santonja, M. (2020) · Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12520-020-01058-6 · Cited by 19
“…to data observed in the archeological record (Keeley and Toth 1981; Keeley 1997; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2001; Lemorini et al. 2014, 2019; Yravedra et al. 2016, 2017), early hominid dietary studies (Ungar et al. 2006), and ethnographic reports (Marlowe and Berbesque 2009; Pontzer et al. 2012).”
BackgroundFlack, K. D., Stults‐Kolehmainen, M., Creasy, S. A., Khullar, S., Boullosa, D. A., Catenacci, V. A., & King, N. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1098394 · Cited by 21
Mechanics of archery among Hadza hunter-gatherers
Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., Basdeo, T., Harris, J. A., Mabulla, A. Z. P., & Wood, B. M. (2017) · Journal of Archaeological Science Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.09.025 · Cited by 19
Self-citationPontzer, H. (2021) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23579 · Cited by 21
“With fire to provide warmth, Paleolithic hominins would have used less metabolic energy for thermoregulation at night or during cold periods.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationAn adaptive response to uncertainty can lead to weight gain during dieting attempts
Higginson, A. D., & McNamara, J. M. (2016) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eow031 · Cited by 19
“Evidence suggests that energy use in western environments is similar to that for hunter-gatherers [30], suggesting that excessive food consumption rather than sedentary lifestyles causes obesity.”
BackgroundThe evidence for constrained total energy expenditure in humans and other animals
Pontzer, H., & Trexler, E. T. (2026) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2026.01.025 · Cited by 19
Self-citationEffects and possible mechanisms of intermittent fasting on health and disease: a narrative review
Li, Z., Huang, L., Luo, Y., Yu, B., & Tian, G. (2023) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuad026 · Cited by 21
Understanding eating interventions through an evolutionary lens
Ahlstrom, B., Dinh, T. V., Haselton, M. G., & Tomiyama, A. J. (2016) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2016.1260489 · Cited by 19
Adiposity, CVD risk factors and testosterone
Gettler, L. T., Sarma, M. S., Gengo, R. G., Oka, R., & McKenna, J. J. (2017) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eox005 · Cited by 19
“For example, studies of Hadza foragers in Tanzania show that when families have young, breastfeeding infants, fathers increase their time and effort in energetically costly subsistence [39] and unsurprisingly adults in this population are very physically active [40].”
BackgroundWall‐Scheffler, C. M. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-7460-0_10 · Cited by 18
“As high resolution studies of human seasonality of speed and movement distances become available (e.g., Pontzer et al. 2012 ), hopefully some of these relationships will be uncovered for our own species.”
BackgroundAN AGENT-BASED MODEL OF HUMAN DISPERSALS AT A GLOBAL SCALE
Callegari, S., Weissmann, J. D., Ткаченко, Н., Petersen, W. P., Lake, G., de León, M. S. P., & Zollikofer, C. P. E. (2013) · Advances in Complex Systems · doi:10.1142/s0219525913500239 · Cited by 18
“A stochastic implementation of the FKPP model is applied in this case: agents are born and died with probabilities that are linear functions of the local density of agents, such that the sum of these two stochastic processes results on average in a logistic growth, and the carrying capacity K in each cell depends on t…”
BackgroundMethodHigh daily energy expenditure of Tuvan nomadic pastoralists living in an extreme cold environment
Sellers, A. J., Khovalyg, D. M., Plasqui, G., & Lichtenbelt, W. D. V. M. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-23975-3 · Cited by 17
Exercise is essential for health but a poor tool for weight loss: a reply to Allison and colleagues
Pontzer, H. (2022) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-022-01248-3 · Cited by 17
“Using multiple regression to control for body size and composition, as Allison and others have recommended [1], we found Hadza adults’ TEE were indistinguishable from those of comparatively sedentary Westerners [2].”
MethodSelf-citationEnergetic costs of testosterone in two subsistence populations
Trumble, B. C., Pontzer, H., Stieglitz, J., Cummings, D. K., Wood, B. M., Thompson, M. E., Raichlen, D. A., Beheim, B., Yetish, G. M., Kaplan, H. S., et al. (2023) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23949 · Cited by 18
“…hunter-gatherers living in the savannah-woodlands of northern Tanzania practice a traditional lifeway similar to those experienced throughout much of our human evolutionary past (Pontzer et al., 2012; Raichlen et al., 2017), with relatively high levels of physical activity (Pontzer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPhysical performance during energy deficiency in humans: An evolutionary perspective
Areta, J. L. (2023) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.111473 · Cited by 18
Rewild Your Inner Hunter-Gatherer
Lavi, N., Rudge, A., & Warren, G. M. (2024) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/728528 · Cited by 17
“These have perhaps inadvertently found their way into our current models of early human behavior in the form of treating living hunter-gatherers as if they depicted our ancestral lifeways (Henn et al. 2011; Pontzer et al. 2012).”
Race and the Insulin Resistance Syndrome
Kramer, H., Dugas, L. R., & Rosas, S. E. (2013) · Seminars in Nephrology · doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2013.07.007 · Cited by 17
Ten things to know about ten cardiovascular disease risk factors (“ASPC Top Ten – 2020”)
Bays, H. E. (2020) · American Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpc.2020.100003 · Cited by 18
“While sometimes higher, total energy expenditure among rural hunter-gathers may not always substantially differ from more industrialized populations [8,9].”
BackgroundLipid-lowering effect of maize-based traditional Mexican food on a metabolic syndrome model in rats
Cano, J. M. M., Aguilar, A. C., & Hernández, J. A. C. (2013) · Lipids in Health and Disease · doi:10.1186/1476-511x-12-35 · Cited by 17
Serious analytical inconsistencies challenge the validity of the energy balance theory
Arencibia‐Albite, F. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04204 · Cited by 16
“Likewise, the feature of the Western lifestyle that may explain the current obesity epidemic is today's supersize portions of food and drinks as the rising incidence in obesity appears not to be explained by diminished EE levels [36, 37, 38].”
BackgroundO’Mara, S. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.654122 · Cited by 16
Stoner, L. R., Higgins, S., & Paterson, C. A. (2023) · American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00258.2023 · Cited by 20
Physical Inactivity from the Viewpoint of Evolutionary Medicine
Kirchengast, S. (2014) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports2020034 · Cited by 16
“[81] Igloolik inuit 2.”
Obesity and energy balance: What is the role of physical activity?
Shook, R. P. (2016) · Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1080/17446651.2016.1243465 · Cited by 18
“Certainly, as Pontzer notes, there are several examples of elevated TDEE among individuals performing both vigorous and moderate levels of physical activity [45].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialInsights into human evolution from 60 years of research on chimpanzees at Gombe
Wilson, M. L. (2021) · Evolutionary Human Sciences · doi:10.1017/ehs.2021.2 · Cited by 16
“A study of the Hadza hunter–gatherers in Tanzania found that mean daily walking distances were 5.8 km/day for women and 11.4 km/day for men (Pontzer et al., 2012), much greater than the daily travel distances for chimpanzees at Kanyawara (females 2.0 km/day; males 2.4 km/ day) or Gombe (females 3.2…”
BackgroundInfluentialOcobock, C., Soppela, P., Turunen, M., Stenbäck, V., Herzig, K., Rimbach, R., & Pontzer, H. (2021) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23676 · Cited by 15
“…and temperate climate populations (Black, Coward, Cole, & Prentice, 1996; Davidson, McNeill, Haggarty, Smith, & Franklin, 1997; Dugas et al., 2011; Prentice et al., 1986; Schulz, Westerterp, & Bruck, 1989; Seale, Rumpler, Conway, & Miles, 1990; Welle, Forbes, Statt, Barnard, & Amatruda, 1992).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPorter, J. A., Nguo, K., Gibson, S., Huggins, C. E., Collins, J., Kellow, N. J., & Truby, H. (2018) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-018-0348-8 · Cited by 16
“, 2012, 2015 [55, 56]; Tanzania 4 0 Hadza hunter-gatherers compared with Western population”
BackgroundHunter-gatherer diets and human behavioral evolution
Veile, A. J. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.05.023 · Cited by 16
de Oliveira, P. B. P., Silva, H. R., Romero, C. W. D. S., Bortoletto, A., & Dias, J. H. P. (2020) · Editora Poisson eBooks · doi:10.36229/978-65-86127-29-4.cap.05 · Cited by 15
The fire of evolution: energy expenditure and ecology in primates and other endotherms
McGrosky, A., & Pontzer, H. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.245272 · Cited by 17
Self-citationNeandertal energetics: Uncertainty in body mass estimation limits comparisons with Homo sapiens
Heyes, P., & MacDonald, K. (2015) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.04.007 · Cited by 15
Traditional Mexican foods as functional agents in the treatment of cardiometabolic risk factors
Escalante-Araiza, F., & Gutiérrez-Salmeán, G. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1758028 · Cited by 15
“…preservation of local food patterns based on regional products and the traditional preparation of the kitchen characteristic of a community, as a strategy to reduce problems related to chronic non-communicable diseases (Dai et al. 2010; Pontzer et al. 2012; Sofi et al. 2008; Taniguchi et al. 2008).”
BackgroundRestriction of food intake by PPP1R17-expressing neurons in the DMH
Çağlar, C., & Friedman, J. M. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2100194118 · Cited by 13
“O besity and its comorbidities, type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases, are global health problems affecting 400 million people worldwide (1) and causing substantial economic burden (2).”
Pisor, A. C., Gurven, M., Blackwell, A. D., Kaplan, H. S., & Yetish, G. M. (2013) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.22445 · Cited by 16
Ocobock, C. J. (2015) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.22797 · Cited by 15
How the Brain May Have Shaped Muscle Anatomy and Physiology: A Preliminary Study
Muchlinski, M. N., Hemingway, H. W., Pastor, J. F., Omstead, K. M., & Burrows, A. M. (2018) · The Anatomical Record · doi:10.1002/ar.23746 · Cited by 15
Rimbach, R., Yamada, Y., Sagayama, H., Ainslie, P. N., Anderson, L. F., Anderson, L. J., Arab, L., Baddou, I., Bedu-Addo, K., Blaak, E. E., et al. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27246-z · Cited by 19
Self-citationGhosh, J., Singh, K., Choudhury, S. R., Koner, S., & Basu, N. (2022) · Acta Scientifci Nutritional Health · doi:10.31080/asnh.2022.06.1108 · Cited by 13
Sadhir, S., & Pontzer, H. (2023) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-023-00318-3 · Cited by 18
“Studies from these settings have suggested that energy expenditures are often less than expected given the physically active lifestyle typical in small scale societies [28, 29, 102, 103].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMcGrosky, A., Swanson, Z. S., Rimbach, R., Bethancourt, H. J., Ndiema, E., Nzunza, R., Braun, D. R., Rosinger, A. Y., & Pontzer, H. (2024) · Annals of Human Biology · doi:10.1080/03014460.2024.2310724 · Cited by 14
“Hadza hunter-gatherers in Tanzania and Tsimane’ forager-farmers in lowland Bolivia, for example, have mass-adjusted TEEs that are indistinguishable from those of more sedentary Western populations (Pontzer et al. 2012; 2018).”
Self-citationPorter, J. A., Ward, L. C., Nguo, K., Davidson, Z. E., Gibson, S., Prentice, R. L., Neuhouser, M. L., & Truby, H. (2023) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.010 · Cited by 15
Energy constraint and compensation: Insights from endurance athletes
Dolan, E., Koehler, K., Areta, J. L., Longman, D. P., & Pontzer, H. (2023) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.111500 · Cited by 19
Self-citationThe goal of locomotion: Separating the fundamental task from the mechanisms that accomplish it
Croft, J. L., Schroeder, R. T., & Bertram, J. E. A. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-016-1222-3 · Cited by 14
“Although in our everyday experience we generally have an overabundance of available energy, this was likely not the situation during the evolution of the unique human locomotory system (Pontzer et al., 2012; Sockol et al., 2007).”
BackgroundLocomotor constraints favour the evolution of the human pygmy phenotype in tropical rainforests
Venkataraman, V. V., Yegian, A. K., Wallace, I. J., Holowka, N. B., Tacey, I., Gurven, M., & Kraft, T. S. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.1492 · Cited by 10
“Second, the relationship between walking speed and COT is U-shaped, and the speed at the minimum of this curve (COTmin) is necessarily higher for taller individuals [7].”
BackgroundInfluentialDaujeard, C., & Prat, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2022.834638 · Cited by 9
“…the transition toward eating a high-quality diet, such as meat, for example, and cooperation among hominins (including care of the young, protection from predators, group hunting, and food storage) (O’Connell et al., 1988b, 2002; Hawkes et al., 2001; Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Pontzer, 2012).”
BackgroundKonner, M. J., & Eaton, S. B. (2023) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.21987 · Cited by 16
“Despite the low level of physical activity among contemporary Westerners, their total energy expenditure (TEE) is similar to that of Hadza hunter‐gatherers.(46,104,106) This suggests that the basic human energy utilization equation, and that of all primates, resembles a “zero sum game.”
BackgroundRepresenting space and place: hunter-gatherer perspectives
O’Meara, C., Burenhult, N., Rothstein, M., & Sercombe, P. G. (2018) · Hunter Gatherer Research · doi:10.3828/hgr.2018.19 · Cited by 13
“Furthermore, in recent years, rapidly developing techniques of recording, measurement and modelling have nurtured a number of studies of hunter-gatherer spatial behaviour during foraging and socialising (eg Lewis et al 2014; Migliano et al 2017; Pontzer et al 2012, 2015; Raichlen et al 2014).”
BackgroundLongman, D. P., Dolan, E., Wells, J. C. K., & Stock, J. T. (2023) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.111422 · Cited by 14
“…of human variation and adaptation at the interindividual (i.e., between individuals) (Longman et al., 2019, 2021; Ocobock, 2016; Pontzer, 2015a; Pontzer et al., 2012, 2016; Thurber et al., 2019) and intraindividual levels (i.e. within the individual) (e.g., Longman et al., 2018; Macintosh et…”
BackgroundHuman cold adaptation: An unfinished agenda v2.0
Ocobock, C. J. (2023) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23937 · Cited by 14
“In terms of TEE (kcal/day), cold climate populations are poorly represented compared to temperate and equatorial populations (Christopher et al., 2019; Dugas et al., 2011; Pontzer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundThe Animal Kingdom, Agriculture⋯ and Seaweeds
Cornish, M. L., Monagail, M. M., & Critchley, A. T. (2020) · Journal of Marine Science and Engineering · doi:10.3390/jmse8080574 · Cited by 13
“Highly processed, energy-dense but nutrient-poor foods are cited as the likely culprits contributing to the obesogenic effects experienced by westernized populations [50].”
BackgroundEvolutionary Medicine and Future of Humanity: Will Evolution Have the Final Word?
Saniotis, A., & Henneberg, M. (2013) · Humanities · doi:10.3390/h2020278 · Cited by 13
Guse, K., Sharma, A. K., Weyenberg, E., Davison, S., Ma, Y., Choi, Y., Johnson, A. J., Chen, C., & Gomez, A. M. (2023) · Gut Microbiome · doi:10.1017/gmb.2023.9 · Cited by 12
“In turn, food industrialisation has also coincidedwith low gutmicrobiome diversity, generating questions about how this loss has contributed to the higher incidence of metabolic and inflammatory diseases observed in the industrialised Western world, compared with populations that still rely on traditional diets for su…”
BackgroundHuman Bodies in Extreme Environments
Ocobock, C. J. (2023) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-052721-085858 · Cited by 15
Through the lens of causal inference: Decisions and pitfalls of covariate selection
Chen, G., Cai, Z., & Taylor, P. A. (2024) · Aperture Neuro · doi:10.52294/001c.124817 · Cited by 12
Human Energy Expenditure in Anthropology and Beyond
Ocobock, C. J. (2020) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.13392 · Cited by 14
Fernández‐Verdejo, R., Alcántara, J. M. A., Galgani, J. E., Acosta, F. M., Migueles, J. H., Amaro‐Gahete, F. J., Labayen, I., Ortega, F. B., & Ruiz, J. R. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91750-x · Cited by 14
Gustafson, C. R., Arslain, K. B., & Rose, D. J. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13082620 · Cited by 12
Assaf, S., Park, J., Chowdhry, N., Ganapuram, M., Mattathil, S., Alakeel, R., & Kelly, O. J. (2024) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo14070379 · Cited by 13
“This implies that total daily energy expenditure is an evolved trait and largely independent of lifestyle factors [226], placing a higher emphasis on improving body composition parameters.”
BackgroundThe Meanings and Dividends of Man the Hunter
Venkataraman, V. V., Hagen, E. H., Stibbard-Hawkes, D., Hames, R., Lew‐Levy, S., Jang, H., Glowacki, L., Hoffman, J., Kramer, K., Davis, H. E., et al. (2026) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2026.106840 · Cited by 11
Closing the Loop Between Circadian Rhythms, Sleep, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Raman, S., & Coogan, A. N. (2019) · Handbook of behavioral neuroscience · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813743-7.00047-5 · Cited by 12
Scaling of free-ranging primate energetics with body mass predicts low energy expenditure in humans
Simmen, B., Darlu, P., Hladik, C. M., & Pasquet, P. (2014) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.10.018 · Cited by 11
“In addition, the only study using doubly labeled water to assess the rate of energy use in a society of hunter–gatherers (presumed representative of ancestral lifestyles of Pleistocene human groups), showed that, surprisingly, total energy expenditure was not markedly different from that of Westerners or farmers once…”
BackgroundInfluentialFreese, J. (2013) · Journal of Evolution and Health An Ancestral Health Society Publication · doi:10.15310/2334-3591.1035 · Cited by 8
“For approximately 84,000 generations humans lived under hunter and gatherer conditions [13,14] but recently humans have endured dramatic change from their native lifestyle with the occurrence of the agricultural, industrial, and digital revolutions [15-18].”
BackgroundCronise, R. J., Sinclair, D. A., & Bremer, A. A. (2016) · Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders · doi:10.1089/met.2016.0108 · Cited by 10
Studies in microgravity, simulated microgravity and gravity do not support a gravitostat
Turner, R. T., Branscum, A. J., Wong, C. P., Iwaniec, U. T., & Morey, E. R. (2020) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/joe-20-0393 · Cited by 10
“For example, studies of Hadza hunter-gatherers challenge the concept that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure or result in more sitting time (Pontzer et al. 2012).”
BackgroundAlencar, R. M., Martínez, J. G., Machado., V. N., Álzate, J. F., Ojeda, C. P. O., Matias, R. R., Benzaquem, D. C., Santos, M. C. F., de Assunção, E. N., Lira, E. C., et al. (2024) · Brazilian Journal of Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s42770-024-01413-y · Cited by 10
“…OTUs found in the gut microbiota of the Yanomami and Manaus population by age group for (a) Prevotella , (b) Lactobacillus , (c) Bacteroides , and (d) Ten main genus in the two populations low levels of Bacteroides , similar to Guahibo Amerindians, Malawians, and African hunter-gatherers [1, 35].”
BackgroundDiurnal variation in salivary cortisol across age classes in A che A merindian males of P araguay
Amir, D., Ellison, P. T., Hill, K. R., & Bribiescas, R. G. (2014) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.22645 · Cited by 9
“A recent study has shown that while physical activity levels differ among huntergatherers and those living in market economies, total energetic expenditure is remarkably similar between these populations (Pontzer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundAging, Life History, and Human Evolution
Bribiescas, R. G. (2020) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-010220-074148 · Cited by 13
The roles of different macronutrients in regulation of appetite, energy intake and adiposity
Speakman, J. R. (2021) · Current Opinion in Endocrine and Metabolic Research · doi:10.1016/j.coemr.2021.100297 · Cited by 10
The dietary advice on added sugar needs emergency surgery
Malhotra, A. (2013) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.f3199 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., Wood, B. M., Mabulla, A. Z. P., Racette, S. B., & Marlowe, F. W.
- Affiliations
- Hunter College (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Dar es Salaam (TZ)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Pontzer, Herman
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2012-07-25
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- e40503
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3405064
- OpenAlex
- W1975274499
- Semantic Scholar
- fe895f75853c89772336a20761f0c3e6fa3e22ca
- Cited by
- 349
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 21.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Commons@Becker (Washington University School of Medicine) (submittedVersion)
- CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- University of Arizona
- Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology
- National Institute for Medical Research
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Indigenous Health and Education
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- hunter-gatherers, Hadza, human obesity, daily energy expenditure, physical activity level, energy cost of walking, resting metabolic rate, Western lifestyle, evolutionary physiology
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Obesity, Walking
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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