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Cited by 349Obesity, Physical Activity, DietIndigenous Health and EducationRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

Hunter-gatherer energetics and human obesity

Open access
Pontzer, Herman, Raichlen, David A., Wood, Brian M., Mabulla, Audax Z. P., Racette, Susan B., Marlowe, Frank W.·2012·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0040503PMC PMC3405064
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Abstract

Western lifestyles differ markedly from those of our hunter-gatherer ancestors, and these differences in diet and activity level are often implicated in the global obesity pandemic. However, few physiological data for hunter-gatherer populations are available to test these models of obesity. In this study, we used the doubly-labeled water method to measure total daily energy expenditure (kCal/day) in Hadza hunter-gatherers to test whether foragers expend more energy each day than their Western counterparts. As expected, physical activity level, PAL, was greater among Hadza foragers than among Westerners. Nonetheless, average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size. The metabolic cost of walking (kcal kg(-1) m(-1)) and resting (kcal kg(-1) s(-1)) were also similar among Hadza and Western groups. The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure. We hypothesize that human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Doubly labeled water measurements in Hadza hunter-gatherers show that, despite higher physical activity levels and lower body fat than Westerners, their total daily energy expenditure is similar after controlling for body size. The paper argues that obesity differences between populations are more likely driven by energy intake than by reduced energy expenditure from Western lifestyles.

Key findings

  • Hadza adults had lower body fat than Western adults: Hadza women 20.9±4.6% and men 13.5±4.2%, versus Western women 37.9±7.0% and men 22.5±5.0%.
  • TEE did not differ between Hadza and Western groups after controlling for fat-free mass and age: Hadza women 1877±364 kCal/day vs Western women 2347±360 kCal/day; Hadza men 2649±395 kCal/day vs Western men 3053±464 kCal/day; lifestyle had no effect on TEE (women: F(139)=0.18, p=0.67; men: F(49)=0.17, p=0.68).
  • Physical activity level was higher among Hadza men (2.26±0.48) than Western men (1.81±0.21; F(43)=13.07, p=0.001), and slightly higher among Hadza women (1.78±0.30) than Western women (1.68±0.22; F(162)=3.80, p=0.05).
  • Farming populations had higher TEE than predicted for body size, while Hadza did not differ from market-economy populations (t(155)=−0.35, p=0.73); farming groups had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t=2.76, p=0.006).

Methods

  • TEE was measured using doubly labeled water over an 11-day period in 30 Hadza adults (13 men ages 18–65, 17 women ages 18–75); PAL was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR.
  • Daily walking distance was measured with GPS in Hadza subjects; resting metabolic rate and walking cost were measured with portable respirometry in subsets (RMR n=19; walking cost n=14).
  • Comparative analyses used previous DLW studies and new U.S. adult measurements (n=68), plus a population-level meta-analysis of 198 single-sex cohorts representing 4,972 subjects; generalized linear models controlled for fat-free mass, age, sex, and body size where applicable.

Limitations

  • The paper states it was not an intervention study: it examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition but did not test the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.
  • The paper states that TEE and PAL measurements of other traditional populations, preferably hunter-gatherers, are needed to assess whether the Hadza pattern is typical of human foragers.
  • The paper notes that BMR was estimated rather than measured for Hadza subjects, and that fat-free mass was unavailable for most populations in population-level analyses, so total body mass was used as a body-size index; evident from the text, Hadza subsamples for RMR and walking cost were small (n=19 and n=14), and the comparative dataset combines heterogeneous prior studies.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0040503

Cites

50 of 50 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 36 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    TEE among Hadza adults was strongly related to fat free mass (FFM) (r2 = 0.66, n = 30, p<0.001).

    “TEE among Hadza adults was strongly related to body size, specifically fat free mass (FFM) (r2 = 0.66, n = 30, p<0.001; Table S1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size.

    “Nonetheless, average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “In multivariate comparisons of TEE controlling for FFM and age, Hadza women’s energy expenditure was similar to that of Western women (n = 186) and Hadza men’s TEE was similar to Western men (n = 53); lifestyle had no effect on TEE (women: F(139) = 0.18, p = 0.67; men: F(49) = 0.17, p = 0.68) (Fig. 1, Table S1).”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “TEE among Hadza and Westerners was indistinguishable when controlling for lean mass and fat mass (common proxies for non-activity metabolic costs) despite differences in lifestyle and estimated PAL.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Farming groups had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons.

    “In comparisons among individual subjects, female Bolivian farmers [13] had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women (p<0.001 both comparisons, Table 1), and farming groups (n = 3) had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t = 2.76, p = 0.006, Table S1) (Fig. 1, 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Female Bolivian farmers had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women.

    “In comparisons among individual subjects, female Bolivian farmers [13] had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women (p<0.001 both comparisons, Table 1), and farming groups (n = 3) had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t = 2.76, p = 0.006, Table S1) (Fig. 1, 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] H Kashiwazaki, 1995, Energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water method in Bolivian Aymara living in a high altitude agropastoral community., Am J Clin Nutr source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    Individual variation in daily walking distance did not explain variation in TEE.

    “However, individual variation in daily walking distance did not explain variation in TEE.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “but TEE was not correlated with mean daily travel distance (F(28) = 0.75, p = 0.39) (Table S1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
  • May combine two claims. 17

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Daily walking distances for Hadza women and men were significantly different.

    “Daily walking distances for Hadza women (mean 5.8, std. dev. ±1.7 km/day) and men (11.4±2.1 km/day) were significantly different (p<0.001, t-test), consistent with previous measurements in hunting and gathering societies [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] FW Marlowe, 2005, Hunter-gatherers and human evolution., Evol Anth source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Estimated daily energy expenditure on walking accounted for an average of 6.7% of TEE among Hadza women and 11.0% among Hadza men.

    “Estimated daily energy expenditure on walking (kCal/day) accounted for an average of 6.7% (±1.9%) of TEE among Hadza women and 11.0% (±3.4%) among Hadza men (Text S1), but TEE was not correlated with mean daily travel distance (F(28) = 0.75, p = 0.39) (Table S1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The range of TEE within Western, foraging, and farming populations largely overlap, both at the individual and population levels.

    “Not only is TEE statistically indistinguishable between Westerners and Hadza foragers, but the range of TEE within Western, foraging, and farming populations largely overlap, both at the individual and population levels (Table 1, Fig. 1, 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Group differences in PAL were related to differences in body size, as the Hadza are significantly smaller than their Western counterparts.

    “Regressing TEE on estimated BMR suggests that group differences in PAL were related to differences in body size, as the Hadza are significantly smaller than their Western counterparts (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure.

    “The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “Measurements of TEE among Hadza hunter-gatherers challenge the view that Western lifestyles result in abnormally low energy expenditure, and that decreased energy expenditure is a primary cause of obesity in developed countries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because TEE is correlated with estimated BMR with a slope <1.0, PAL tends to be greater among smaller individuals.

    “However, because TEE is correlated with estimated BMR with a slope <1.0, PAL (the ratio of TEE/BMR) tends to be greater among smaller individuals; this is particularly evident among men in our sample (Fig. S3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Interpretationown data

    Human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.

    “We hypothesize that human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
      “We hypothesize that TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Physical activity has important, positive effects on health.

    “Physical activity has important, positive effects on health [39], and increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs [40].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] 2010, Global recommendations on physical activity for health. World Health Organization, Geneva.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Power analyses indicated that sample sizes were sufficient to detect a 4.2% difference in mean TEE in comparisons among women (power 97%) and 7.6% difference among men (power 93%).

    “Power analyses indicated that sample sizes were sufficient to detect a 4.2% difference in mean TEE (Hadza vs. Western, α = 0.05) in comparisons among women (power 97%) and 7.6% difference among men (power 93%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Results were unchanged when Hadza were compared to all market-economy individuals, or when body mass was substituted for FFM, or when sexes were combined for analyses.

    “Results were unchanged when Hadza were compared to all market-economy individuals, or when body mass was substituted for FFM (Table S1), or when sexes were combined for analyses (lifestyle: F(189) = 0.25, p = 0.62).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Among the large Western sample, men and women differed in the relationship between FFM and TEE, so men and women were compared separately in multivariate analyses of TEE.

    “Among the large Western sample (n = 239), a test for homogeneity of slopes revealed that men and women differed in the relationship between FFM and TEE (F(238) = 2.68, p<0.001). Slope heterogeneity violates the assumptions of ANCOVA and other GLM comparisons, and thus men and women were compared separately in multivariate analyses of TEE.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs.

    “Physical activity has important, positive effects on health [39], and increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs [40].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] JP Chaput, 2011, Physical activity plays an important role in body weight regulation. J Obes. 2011.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Hadza are a population of hunter-gatherers living in a savannah-woodland environment in Northern Tanzania; their traditional foraging lifestyle has been documented extensively in previous work.

    “The Hadza are a population of hunter-gatherers living in a savannah-woodland environment in Northern Tanzania; their traditional foraging lifestyle has been documented extensively in previous work [17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] FW Marlowe, 2010, The Hadza: Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania. Univ. California Berkeley.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Analyzing males and females separately does not affect the pattern of population comparisons; results from combined-sex analyses were similar.

    “Analyzing males and females separately does not affect the pattern of population comparisons; results from combined-sex analyses were similar (see below).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sahlins' proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an "original affluence," spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day.

    “This view is consistent with Sahlins’ [47] proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an “original affluence,” spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day, as well as a recent study indicating that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] M Sahlins, 1972, Stone Age Economics. Aldine, Chicago.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Slopes were similar among Western and Hadza women and among Western and Hadza men.

    “Tests for homogeneity of slopes revealed that slopes were similar among Western and Hadza women (F(201) = 0.36, p = 0.55) and among Western and Hadza men (F(64) = 0.77, p = 0.38).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Interpretationown data

    TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.

    “We hypothesize that TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans have greater TEE than orangutans, a closely related ape, but have low TEE compared to other eutherian mammals.

    “Humans are known to have greater TEE than orangutans [50], a closely related ape, but have low TEE compared to other eutherian mammals [50], [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [50] H Pontzer, 2010, Metabolic adaptation for low energy throughput in orangutans., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [51] M Hayes, 2005, Low physical activity levels of modern <italic>Homo sapiens</italic> among free-ranging mammals., Int J Obes source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    This was not an intervention study; the study examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition in hunter-gatherers and Westerners, but did not examine the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.

    “It is important to note that this was not an intervention study; we examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition in hunter-gatherers and Westerners, but did not examine the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Institutional approvals and informed consent were obtained prior to data collection.

    “Institutional approval and informed consent were obtained prior to data collection.”
    • Also stated in: § Ethics Statement · plain
      “Institutional approvals, including university (Washington University Institutional Review Board) and all cognizant local governmental agencies (including Tanzanian National Institute for Medical Research and Commission for Science and Technology), were obtained prior to conducting this study. All subjects gave their informed, verbal consent prior to participation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Western diets are more sugar-rich and energy-dense than more "traditional" diets and wild foods.

    “For example, while Western diets are certainly more sugar-rich and energy-dense than more “traditional” diets and wild foods [4], [8], [9], many hunter-gatherers seasonally consume a large portion of their daily calories as honey [10], [11] (Fig. S2), which has high concentrations of glucose and fructose [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] AM Prentice, 2003, Fast foods, energy density and obesity: a possible mechanistic link Obesity Reviews

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] MJ Schoeninger, 2001, Composition of tubers used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania., J Food Comp Analysis source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] S Murray, 2001, Nutritional composition of some wild plant foods and honey used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania., J Food Comp Analysis source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because it was not feasible to measure BMR, PAL was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR.

    “Because it was not feasible to measure basal metabolic rate (BMR, kCal/day), we calculated physical activity level (PAL) as TEE/estimated BMR (Methods).”
    • Also stated in: § Measuring TEE using Doubly Labeled Water · plain
      “Physical activity level (PAL) was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR for each subject following previous studies [13]–[16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13]–[16]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Including fat mass as an independent variable modestly improved the fit of multivariate models for TEE but did not affect the pattern of results.

    “Including fat mass as an independent variable modestly improved the fit of multivariate models for TEE but did not affect the pattern of results (Table S1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Energy throughput in these populations is unlikely to burn the extra calories provided, so efforts to supplement diets may unintentionally increase the incidence of excess adiposity and associated metabolic complications such as insulin resistance.

    “Since energy throughput in these populations is unlikely to burn the extra calories provided, such efforts may unintentionally increase the incidence of excess adiposity and associated metabolic complications such as insulin resistance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    GPS measurements were only considered to represent a full day of travel if the GPS device captured 10 or more hours that day; incomplete recordings were excluded from subsequent analysis.

    “To ensure that incomplete measures of daily travel did not skew travel estimates downward, measurements were only considered to represent a full day of travel if the GPS device captured 10 or more hours that day; incomplete recordings were excluded from subsequent analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent study indicated that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food.

    “This view is consistent with Sahlins’ [47] proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an “original affluence,” spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day, as well as a recent study indicating that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] S Bowles, 2011, Cultivation of cereals by the first farmers was not more productive than foraging., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolic measurements are lacking for hunter-gatherer societies, whose diet and lifestyle provide the best models for studies of human evolution.

    “Notably, metabolic measurements are lacking for hunter-gatherer societies, whose diet and lifestyle provide the best models for studies of human evolution [10].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] FW Marlowe, 2005, Hunter-gatherers and human evolution., Evol Anth source

      Not checked in the free run.

27 of 27

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The proximate cause of weight gain is energy imbalance, with food energy intake exceeding total energy expenditure.

    “The proximate cause of weight gain is energy imbalance, with food energy intake (kCal/day) exceeding total energy expenditure (kCal/day), but the societal causes of the global obesity pandemic remain a focus of debate [1]–[7].”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Studies over the past decade or more have questioned the role of sedentary lifestyle as an explanation for increased obesity rates in extant societies.

    “However, studies over the past decade or more have questioned the role of sedentary lifestyle as an explanation for increased obesity rates in extant societies.84”

    From Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity (2025) · cites this paper as [84]

  • Although the case for physical inactivity as a cause of obesity is weak, there is clear evidence that it contributes to adverse metabolic effects associated with obesity.

    “Although the case for physical inactivity as a cause of obesity is weak,84 there is clear evidence that it contributes to adverse metabolic effects associated with obesity.”

    From Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity (2025) · cites this paper as [84]

  • In other subsistence groups, activity level and energy expenditure estimates often have small sample sizes and restricted age ranges.

    “In other subsistence groups where activity levels and energy expenditure have been estimated, sample sizes are often small and of restricted age ranges, e.g. [11], [12].”

    From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]

  • Body fat percentage has been shown to be unrelated to PAL and energy expenditure in Western populations as well.

    “Body fat percentage has been shown to be unrelated to PAL and energy expenditure in Western populations as well [11], [54].”

    From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]

  • Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania show similar total daily energy expenditure as Westerners despite displaying higher PALs, and their body fat percentage was unrelated to PAL or energetic expenditure.

    “Second, Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania show similar total daily energy expenditure as Westerners despite displaying higher PALs, and their body fat percentage was unrelated to PAL or energetic expenditure [11].”

    From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(155) = -0.35reported p = .73 · recomputed p = .727

    “t(155) = −0.35, p = .73”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

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Authors
Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., Wood, B. M., Mabulla, A. Z. P., Racette, S. B., & Marlowe, F. W.
Affiliations
  • Hunter College (US)
  • University of Arizona (US)
  • Yale University (US)
  • University of Dar es Salaam (TZ)
  • Washington University in St. Louis (US)
  • University of Cambridge (GB)
Corresponding author
Pontzer, Herman
ORCID
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2012-07-25
Volume
7
Issue
7
Pages
e40503
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0040503
PMC
PMC3405064
OpenAlex
W1975274499
Semantic Scholar
fe895f75853c89772336a20761f0c3e6fa3e22ca
Cited by
349
References
50
Citations by year
2026: 15 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 6
FWCI
21.31
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Digital Commons@Becker (Washington University School of Medicine) (submittedVersion)
  • CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation
  • University of Arizona
  • Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology
  • National Institute for Medical Research
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Indigenous Health and Education
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords
hunter-gatherers, Hadza, human obesity, daily energy expenditure, physical activity level, energy cost of walking, resting metabolic rate, Western lifestyle, evolutionary physiology
MeSH terms
Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Obesity, Walking

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

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