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Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity
Open accessAbstract
Western lifestyles differ markedly from those of our hunter-gatherer ancestors, and these differences in diet and activity level are often implicated in the global obesity pandemic. However, few physiological data for hunter-gatherer populations are available to test these models of obesity. In this study, we used the doubly-labeled water method to measure total daily energy expenditure (kCal/day) in Hadza hunter-gatherers to test whether foragers expend more energy each day than their Western counterparts. As expected, physical activity level, PAL, was greater among Hadza foragers than among Westerners. Nonetheless, average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size. The metabolic cost of walking (kcal kg(-1) m(-1)) and resting (kcal kg(-1) s(-1)) were also similar among Hadza and Western groups. The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure. We hypothesize that human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Doubly labeled water measurements in Hadza hunter-gatherers show that, despite higher physical activity levels and lower body fat than Westerners, their total daily energy expenditure is similar after controlling for body size. The paper argues that obesity differences between populations are more likely driven by energy intake than by reduced energy expenditure from Western lifestyles.
Key findings
- Hadza adults had lower body fat than Western adults: Hadza women 20.9±4.6% and men 13.5±4.2%, versus Western women 37.9±7.0% and men 22.5±5.0%.
- TEE did not differ between Hadza and Western groups after controlling for fat-free mass and age: Hadza women 1877±364 kCal/day vs Western women 2347±360 kCal/day; Hadza men 2649±395 kCal/day vs Western men 3053±464 kCal/day; lifestyle had no effect on TEE (women: F(139)=0.18, p=0.67; men: F(49)=0.17, p=0.68).
- Physical activity level was higher among Hadza men (2.26±0.48) than Western men (1.81±0.21; F(43)=13.07, p=0.001), and slightly higher among Hadza women (1.78±0.30) than Western women (1.68±0.22; F(162)=3.80, p=0.05).
- Farming populations had higher TEE than predicted for body size, while Hadza did not differ from market-economy populations (t(155)=−0.35, p=0.73); farming groups had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t=2.76, p=0.006).
Methods
- TEE was measured using doubly labeled water over an 11-day period in 30 Hadza adults (13 men ages 18–65, 17 women ages 18–75); PAL was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR.
- Daily walking distance was measured with GPS in Hadza subjects; resting metabolic rate and walking cost were measured with portable respirometry in subsets (RMR n=19; walking cost n=14).
- Comparative analyses used previous DLW studies and new U.S. adult measurements (n=68), plus a population-level meta-analysis of 198 single-sex cohorts representing 4,972 subjects; generalized linear models controlled for fat-free mass, age, sex, and body size where applicable.
Limitations
- The paper states it was not an intervention study: it examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition but did not test the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.
- The paper states that TEE and PAL measurements of other traditional populations, preferably hunter-gatherers, are needed to assess whether the Hadza pattern is typical of human foragers.
- The paper notes that BMR was estimated rather than measured for Hadza subjects, and that fat-free mass was unavailable for most populations in population-level analyses, so total body mass was used as a body-size index; evident from the text, Hadza subsamples for RMR and walking cost were small (n=19 and n=14), and the comparative dataset combines heterogeneous prior studies.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“TEE among Hadza adults was strongly related to body size, specifically fat free mass (FFM) (r2 = 0.66, n = 30, p<0.001; Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nonetheless, average daily energy expenditure of traditional Hadza foragers was no different than that of Westerners after controlling for body size.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“In multivariate comparisons of TEE controlling for FFM and age, Hadza women’s energy expenditure was similar to that of Western women (n = 186) and Hadza men’s TEE was similar to Western men (n = 53); lifestyle had no effect on TEE (women: F(139) = 0.18, p = 0.67; men: F(49) = 0.17, p = 0.68) (Fig. 1, Table S1).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“TEE among Hadza and Westerners was indistinguishable when controlling for lean mass and fat mass (common proxies for non-activity metabolic costs) despite differences in lifestyle and estimated PAL.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In comparisons among individual subjects, female Bolivian farmers [13] had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women (p<0.001 both comparisons, Table 1), and farming groups (n = 3) had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t = 2.76, p = 0.006, Table S1) (Fig. 1, 2).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“In comparisons among individual subjects, female Bolivian farmers [13] had higher TEE than Western and Hadza women (p<0.001 both comparisons, Table 1), and farming groups (n = 3) had consistently greater TEE in population comparisons (t = 2.76, p = 0.006, Table S1) (Fig. 1, 2).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] H Kashiwazaki, 1995, Energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water method in Bolivian Aymara living in a high altitude agropastoral community., Am J Clin Nutr source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, individual variation in daily walking distance did not explain variation in TEE.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“but TEE was not correlated with mean daily travel distance (F(28) = 0.75, p = 0.39) (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The metabolic cost of walking (kcal kg−1 m−1) and resting (kcal kg−1 s−1) were also similar among Hadza and Western groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“RMR for Hadza adults measured while sitting averaged 11% above predicted BMR [27], within the range of values (7–35%) reported for other populations [35].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the Hadza likely perform traditional foraging tasks (e.g., digging tubers or chopping tree limbs for honey) more efficiently than unacculturated Westerners can [34], comparisons of activities common across cultures do not indicate that Hadza muscle and locomotor physiology inherently more efficient.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In multivariate comparisons controlling for mass, height, sex, and age, body fat percentages for Hadza adults were lower than individuals from Western (U.S. and Europe) populations (F(228) = 22.72, p<0.001).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Further, while Hadza differed from Western populations in body fat percentage (F(202) = 44.05, p<0.001), variation in adiposity both within and between populations was not correlated with PAL (F(207) = 0.36, p = 0.55) (Fig. 3) nor with TEE (F(209) = 3.02, p = 0.08, β = 12.06; note that the effect of TEE on adiposity, while not statistically significant, is positive in this sample).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, TEE of Hadza women who were pregnant or lactating (n = 8; 1 pregnant, 7 lactating) was no different from other Hadza women (n = 9; F(16) = 0.96, p = 0.35) after controlling for FFM (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, while Hadza differed from Western populations in body fat percentage (F(202) = 44.05, p<0.001), variation in adiposity both within and between populations was not correlated with PAL (F(207) = 0.36, p = 0.55) (Fig. 3) nor with TEE (F(209) = 3.02, p = 0.08, β = 12.06; note that the effect of TEE on adiposity, while not statistically significant, is positive in this sample).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
In the paper
“Daily walking distances for Hadza women (mean 5.8, std. dev. ±1.7 km/day) and men (11.4±2.1 km/day) were significantly different (p<0.001, t-test), consistent with previous measurements in hunting and gathering societies [10].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] FW Marlowe, 2005, Hunter-gatherers and human evolution., Evol Anth source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Estimated daily energy expenditure on walking (kCal/day) accounted for an average of 6.7% (±1.9%) of TEE among Hadza women and 11.0% (±3.4%) among Hadza men (Text S1), but TEE was not correlated with mean daily travel distance (F(28) = 0.75, p = 0.39) (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is TEE statistically indistinguishable between Westerners and Hadza foragers, but the range of TEE within Western, foraging, and farming populations largely overlap, both at the individual and population levels (Table 1, Fig. 1, 2).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regressing TEE on estimated BMR suggests that group differences in PAL were related to differences in body size, as the Hadza are significantly smaller than their Western counterparts (Table 1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The similarity in metabolic rates across a broad range of cultures challenges current models of obesity suggesting that Western lifestyles lead to decreased energy expenditure.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Measurements of TEE among Hadza hunter-gatherers challenge the view that Western lifestyles result in abnormally low energy expenditure, and that decreased energy expenditure is a primary cause of obesity in developed countries.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, because TEE is correlated with estimated BMR with a slope <1.0, PAL (the ratio of TEE/BMR) tends to be greater among smaller individuals; this is particularly evident among men in our sample (Fig. S3).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We hypothesize that human daily energy expenditure may be an evolved physiological trait largely independent of cultural differences.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“We hypothesize that TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Abstract
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
In the paper
“Physical activity has important, positive effects on health [39], and increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs [40].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] 2010, Global recommendations on physical activity for health. World Health Organization, Geneva.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Power analyses indicated that sample sizes were sufficient to detect a 4.2% difference in mean TEE (Hadza vs. Western, α = 0.05) in comparisons among women (power 97%) and 7.6% difference among men (power 93%).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results were unchanged when Hadza were compared to all market-economy individuals, or when body mass was substituted for FFM (Table S1), or when sexes were combined for analyses (lifestyle: F(189) = 0.25, p = 0.62).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the large Western sample (n = 239), a test for homogeneity of slopes revealed that men and women differed in the relationship between FFM and TEE (F(238) = 2.68, p<0.001). Slope heterogeneity violates the assumptions of ANCOVA and other GLM comparisons, and thus men and women were compared separately in multivariate analyses of TEE.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Physical activity has important, positive effects on health [39], and increased physical activity has been shown to play an important role in weight loss and weight-maintenance programs [40].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] JP Chaput, 2011, Physical activity plays an important role in body weight regulation. J Obes. 2011.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The Hadza are a population of hunter-gatherers living in a savannah-woodland environment in Northern Tanzania; their traditional foraging lifestyle has been documented extensively in previous work [17].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] FW Marlowe, 2010, The Hadza: Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania. Univ. California Berkeley.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analyzing males and females separately does not affect the pattern of population comparisons; results from combined-sex analyses were similar (see below).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This view is consistent with Sahlins’ [47] proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an “original affluence,” spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day, as well as a recent study indicating that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food [48].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] M Sahlins, 1972, Stone Age Economics. Aldine, Chicago.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tests for homogeneity of slopes revealed that slopes were similar among Western and Hadza women (F(201) = 0.36, p = 0.55) and among Western and Hadza men (F(64) = 0.77, p = 0.38).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Statistical Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We hypothesize that TEE may be a relatively stable, constrained physiological trait for the human species, more a product of our common genetic inheritance than our diverse lifestyles.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Humans are known to have greater TEE than orangutans [50], a closely related ape, but have low TEE compared to other eutherian mammals [50], [51].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that this was not an intervention study; we examined habitual TEE, PAL, and body composition in hunter-gatherers and Westerners, but did not examine the effects of imposing increased physical activity on Westerners.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Institutional approval and informed consent were obtained prior to data collection.”
- Also stated in: § Ethics Statement · plain
“Institutional approvals, including university (Washington University Institutional Review Board) and all cognizant local governmental agencies (including Tanzanian National Institute for Medical Research and Commission for Science and Technology), were obtained prior to conducting this study. All subjects gave their informed, verbal consent prior to participation.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Ethics Statement · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, while Western diets are certainly more sugar-rich and energy-dense than more “traditional” diets and wild foods [4], [8], [9], many hunter-gatherers seasonally consume a large portion of their daily calories as honey [10], [11] (Fig. S2), which has high concentrations of glucose and fructose [12].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] AM Prentice, 2003, Fast foods, energy density and obesity: a possible mechanistic link Obesity Reviews
- Not checked yetcites [8] MJ Schoeninger, 2001, Composition of tubers used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania., J Food Comp Analysis source
- Not checked yetcites [9] S Murray, 2001, Nutritional composition of some wild plant foods and honey used by Hadza foragers of Tanzania., J Food Comp Analysis source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because it was not feasible to measure basal metabolic rate (BMR, kCal/day), we calculated physical activity level (PAL) as TEE/estimated BMR (Methods).”
- Also stated in: § Measuring TEE using Doubly Labeled Water · plain
“Physical activity level (PAL) was calculated as TEE/estimated BMR for each subject following previous studies [13]–[16].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13]–[16]
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Measuring TEE using Doubly Labeled Water · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Including fat mass as an independent variable modestly improved the fit of multivariate models for TEE but did not affect the pattern of results (Table S1).”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since energy throughput in these populations is unlikely to burn the extra calories provided, such efforts may unintentionally increase the incidence of excess adiposity and associated metabolic complications such as insulin resistance.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ensure that incomplete measures of daily travel did not skew travel estimates downward, measurements were only considered to represent a full day of travel if the GPS device captured 10 or more hours that day; incomplete recordings were excluded from subsequent analysis.”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Methods > Resting Metabolic Rate and Walking Cost
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“This view is consistent with Sahlins’ [47] proposition that Pleistocene hunter-gatherers enjoyed an “original affluence,” spending only a moderate amount of time on subsistence work each day, as well as a recent study indicating that Neolithic foragers were no less productive than early farmers in obtaining food [48].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] S Bowles, 2011, Cultivation of cereals by the first farmers was not more productive than foraging., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Notably, metabolic measurements are lacking for hunter-gatherer societies, whose diet and lifestyle provide the best models for studies of human evolution [10].”
§ Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] FW Marlowe, 2005, Hunter-gatherers and human evolution., Evol Anth source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The proximate cause of weight gain is energy imbalance, with food energy intake exceeding total energy expenditure.
“The proximate cause of weight gain is energy imbalance, with food energy intake (kCal/day) exceeding total energy expenditure (kCal/day), but the societal causes of the global obesity pandemic remain a focus of debate [1]–[7].”
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The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Despite substantially higher levels of physical activity, total daily energy expenditure among hunter-gatherers in Africa’s savannahs today is largely similar to that of adults living in modern European or US cities, where obesity prevalence is high83.”
From Joint international consensus statement for ending stigma of obesity (2020) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This connectivity would facilitate ready dispersal by hunter-gatherers with an average daily foraging range of 10–15 km (41, 42).”
From Humans, water, and the colonization of Australia (2016) · cites this paper as [42]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, studies over the past decade or more have questioned the role of sedentary lifestyle as an explanation for increased obesity rates in extant societies.84”
From Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity (2025) · cites this paper as [84]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although the case for physical inactivity as a cause of obesity is weak,84 there is clear evidence that it contributes to adverse metabolic effects associated with obesity.”
From Definition and diagnostic criteria of clinical obesity (2025) · cites this paper as [84]
In the citing paper
“In other subsistence groups where activity levels and energy expenditure have been estimated, sample sizes are often small and of restricted age ranges, e.g. [11], [12].”
From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Body fat percentage has been shown to be unrelated to PAL and energy expenditure in Western populations as well [11], [54].”
From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Second, Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania show similar total daily energy expenditure as Westerners despite displaying higher PALs, and their body fat percentage was unrelated to PAL or energetic expenditure [11].”
From Physical Activity and Modernization among Bolivian Amerindians (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(155) = -0.35reported p = .73 · recomputed p = .727
“t(155) = −0.35, p = .73”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
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“Access to food has dramatically improved but unhealthy dietary and activity patterns have emerged (Pradhan, 2007), and we are now experiencing a worldwide obesity pandemic (Pontzer et al., 2012) responsible for almost 5 million premature deaths/year (Stanaway et al.”
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“58 Yet while modern studies suggest that physical activity was almost certainly higher in the past, basic life history theory suggests that humans most likely also evolved to avoid excess exertion to conserve energy in contexts where nutritional stress was common.”
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“Longitudinal urine samples and anthropometrics were collected during the morning or evening in 2010 and 2015 at Sengeli and Setako camps as part of ongoing research into Hadza energy expenditure and health (Pontzer et al., 2012; Raichlen et al., 2017).”
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“Hadza expend about 1,800–2,400 kilocalories a day, which is similar to energy expenditures among postindustrial and agricultural populations (Pontzer et al., 2012).”
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Self-citationThe spatial properties of forager motion categories
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“Pontzer and colleagues found abnormally low metabolic rates among people living a western lifestyle by comparing the daily total energy expenditure of Hadza hunter-gatherers and western counterparts [48].”
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“And even in the case of the Hadza who have comparable energy expenditure to Westerners once adjusted for fat-free mass, the Hadza expend more energy in physical activity and are leaner than their Western counterparts (4).”
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“In fact the genetics of the physiological side of energy dynamics of modern western individuals still does not differ significantly from people that continued to live as hunter-gatherers [5].”
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Gathering Is Not Only for Girls
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Dumesic, D. A., Crespi, B. J., Padmanabhan, V., & Abbott, D. H. (2025) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endocr/bqaf160 · Cited by 4
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“…and indigenous populations (Stein et al. 1988, Durnin, 1990, Minghelli 1990, Leonard et al. 1995, Katzmarzyk et al. 1996, Panter-Brick 1996a, b, Butte et al. 1997, Aleman-Mateo et al. 2006, Snodgrass et al. 2006, Dufour and Piperata 2008, Kashiwazaki et al. 2009, Pontzer et al. 2012).”
InfluentialEthics in Qualitative Research
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“TheHadzabe generally show low adiposity and minimal prevalence of cardiometabolic diseases (53,54) .”
Small populations of Palaeolithic humans in Cyprus hunted endemic megafauna to extinction
Bradshaw, C. J. A., Saltré, F., Crabtree, S. A., Reepmeyer, C., & Moutsiou, T. (2024) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2024.0967 · Cited by 3
“We first obtained estimates of the daily energy intake for hunter–gatherers [34] for both adult females ( ξ f = 1877 ± 364 kCal day −1 = 7853 ± 1523 kJ day −1 ) and adult males ( ξ m = 2649 ± 395 kCal day −1 = 11083 ± 1653 kJ day −1 ).”
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Metabolic Acceleration in Human Evolution
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“…of metabolic rates in humans: total energy expenditure and basal metabolic rate (BMR) are remarkably stable in humans, regardless of lifestyle (Pontzer et al., 2012), and the costs of physical activity plateau already at amod- Cell Metabolis erate level of daily activity (Pontzer et al.,…”
BackgroundDiabetes and Obesity—An Evolutionary Perspective
Kirchengast, S. (2017) · AIMS Medical Science · doi:10.3934/medsci.2017.1.28 · Cited by 3
Infrastructure and the Energy Use of Human Polities
Freeman, J., Baggio, J. A., Miranda, L., & Anderies, J. M. (2023) · Cross-Cultural Research · doi:10.1177/10693971221149779 · Cited by 3
“To define M, thus, we start by assuming a constant field metabolic rate, mb (energy/person/time) required for somatic maintenance and reproduction that has evolved over the last two million years in the Homo lineage (Pontzer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundAssif, L., & Chirchir, H. (2023) · The Anatomical Record · doi:10.1002/ar.25302 · Cited by 3
“…in mass and strength (Barak et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2009; Chirchir et al., 2017; Lanyon, 1973; Mori et al., 2003; Pettersson et al., 2010; Pontzer et al., 2012; Ruff et al., 2006; Ruff et al., 2015; Ryan & Shaw, 2015; Shaw & Stock, 2009; Tsegai et al., 2013; Wallace et al., 2007; Warden…”
BackgroundInfluentialAdipose development is consistent across hunter–gatherers and diverges from western references
Hackman, J., Campbell, B., Hewlett, B. S., Page, A. E., & Kramer, K. L. (2024) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2024.0110 · Cited by 2
“…valuable insights into the adaptive range of maturational trajectories in environments characterized by natural fertility, mortality schedules that are unabetted by medical intervention, habitual activity, limited overconsumption of food and seasonal fluctuation in caloric availability [29,31,32].”
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“Of course, both rodents and humans in a state of nature are far more physically active than they are in the laboratory or office (though some debate remains, Pontzer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMuscle forces and the demands of turning while walking
Lautzenheiser, S. G., & Kramer, P. A. (2025) · Biology Open · doi:10.1242/bio.061883 · Cited by 2
“Bipedal locomotion is, arguably, the defining characteristic of the human lineage, and humans spend a substantial amount of time moving through their environment (Bassett et al., 2010, 2004; Pontzer et al., 2012).”
Istfan, N. W. (2025) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00487.2024 · Cited by 3
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“Obesity, indicated by high BMI, was likely lower in the evolutionary past than it is now (Pontzer et al. 2012).”
Harris, A. R., Yegian, A. K., Sibson, B. E., Uwimana, A., Niyibizi, J., Regnier, D., Ojiambo, R. M., Nuhu, A., Thomas, A., Kocsis, L., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.70142 · Cited by 2
“PALs have been the predominant metric in studies comparing activity levels across populations for decades (Dugas et al. 2011; Pontzer et al. 2012; Matthews et al. 2023; Luke et al. 2002).”
InfluentialEvolutionary Aspects of Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and Cardiovascular Risk
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“A recent metabolic study of Hadza hunter-gatherers confirmed the presence of higher activity levels [16], however it was found that when adjusted for their lighter body weight, the calculated energy expenditure of the Hadza was similar to that of Westerners.”
ResultWorking Out: The Molecular Biology of Exercise.
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“Research has shown that their caloric needs and energy expenditure are not all that different than moderately active adults in Europe, despite living a more active life (Pontzer et al. 2012, 2016; Pontzer 2017).”
Recent Research on the Human Biology of Pastoralists
Campbell, B. (2024) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.24156 · Cited by 2
“Pontzer et al. (2012) determined TEE among 30 Hadza ( F = 17; M = 13), ages 18– 75, using DLW. TEE and PAL for the women were 7853 kJ/d and 1.78.”
InfluentialEnergy metabolism and body composition in athletes
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“Even in light of the evidence that differences in levels of physical activity may not fully account for differences in obesity between industrialized societies and hunter-gatherers [37], sedentary lifestyles may still contribute to related disorders, including AD.”
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Dietary energy in balance: time for an update of energy requirements
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“…communities through the quantified measurement of harvested calories, energetic expenditure, and time allocation (Bailey and DeVore 1989; Christopher et al. 2019; Hill and Hurtado 1996; Kaplan 1994; Kaplan et al. 2009; Mulder and Beheim 2011; O'Connell et al. 1988; Pontzer et al. 2012).”
Oosterlinck, F., & Segers, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2026.1803885 · Cited by 2
“In the Paleolithic environment food availability was more uncertain, energy-dense foods, and calories were harder to acquire (92, 94, 95), and these challenges for survival and successful reproduction likely led to the evolution of adaptive preferences for energy-dense foods—foods that were high in…”
Yegian, A. K., Pachus, E., Redman, L. M., Heymsfield, S. B., Falkenhain, K., Harris, A. R., Chacko, S. K., Wong, W. W., & Lieberman, D. E. (2026) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp291108 · Cited by 1
“One influential cross-sectional study found that a sample of 30 Hadza hunter-gatherers from Tanzania have FFM-adjusted TEEs similar to a sample of 239 Americans despite being approximately ten times more physically active (Pontzer et al., 2012).”
Holler, A. (2012) · Adipositas - Ursachen Folgeerkrankungen Therapie · doi:10.1055/s-0037-1618797 · Cited by 1
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El coste de la supervivencia en las poblaciones humanas del Pleistoceno
Vidal‐Cordasco, M. (2021) · Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Burgos (University of Burgos) · doi:10.36443/10259/5869
Evolutionary Insights into the Social and Environmental Drivers of Health Inequality
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State of malnutrition and its fast growing wing in developing countries
Arega, M. (2014) · Studia Mundi - Economica · doi:10.18531/studia.mundi.2014.01.01.79-86
Original Research Article Energy Expenditure and Activity Among Hadza Hunter-Gatherers
Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., Wood, B. M., Thompson, M. E., Racette, S. B., & Marlowe, F. W. (2015)
Self-citationTratamiento de la obesidad a través del paleotraining y la paleodieta
Fernández, J. E. R., & Couto, J. M. P. (2015) · EmásF: revista digital de educación física
Perspectives on Microbiome Manipulation in People of Developing Countries
Reid, G. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802304-4.00003-7
The Genetic Mechanisms Underlying Human Obesity
Clark, S. J. (2012) · doi:10.25560/11607
Nutritional contribution of plant foods to human diet in evolution
Schnorr, S. L. (2016) · Leiden Repository (Leiden University)
Total Energy Expenditure in Captive Sapajus apella
Edwards, W. I. (2016) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York)
Reduced Immune Investment with Energy Stress: Evidence from a Mouse Model and Human Studies
Schneider, A. L. (2017) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York)
11th Annual Symposium on Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose: April 12–14, 2018, Oslo, Norway
Parkin, C. G., Homberg, A., & Hinzmann, R. (2018) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2018.0284
Metadata
- Authors
- Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., Wood, B. M., Mabulla, A. Z. P., Racette, S. B., & Marlowe, F. W.
- Affiliations
- Hunter College (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Dar es Salaam (TZ)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Pontzer, Herman
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2012-07-25
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- e40503
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3405064
- OpenAlex
- W1975274499
- Semantic Scholar
- fe895f75853c89772336a20761f0c3e6fa3e22ca
- Cited by
- 349
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 21.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Commons@Becker (Washington University School of Medicine) (submittedVersion)
- CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- University of Arizona
- Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology
- National Institute for Medical Research
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Indigenous Health and Education
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Keywords
- hunter-gatherers, Hadza, human obesity, daily energy expenditure, physical activity level, energy cost of walking, resting metabolic rate, Western lifestyle, evolutionary physiology
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Obesity, Walking
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