A Systematic Review of PTSD Prevalence and Trajectories in DSM-5 Defined Trauma Exposed Populations: Intentional and Non-Intentional Traumatic Events
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OBJECTIVE: We conducted a systematic review of the literature to explore the longitudinal course of PTSD in DSM-5-defined trauma exposed populations to identify the course of illness and recovery for individuals and populations experiencing PTSD. METHODS: We reviewed the published literature from January 1, 1998 to December 31, 2010 for longitudinal studies of directly exposed trauma populations in order to: (1) review rates of PTSD in the first year after a traumatic event; (2) examine potential types of proposed DSM-5 direct trauma exposure (intentional and non-intentional); and (3) identify the clinical course of PTSD (early onset, later onset, chronicity, remission, and resilience). Of the 2537 identified articles, 58 articles representing 35 unique subject populations met the proposed DSM-5 criteria for experiencing a traumatic event, and assessed PTSD at two or more time points within 12 months of the traumatic event. RESULTS: The mean prevalence of PTSD across all studies decreases from 28.8% (range =3.1-87.5%) at 1 month to 17.0% (range =0.6-43.8%) at 12 months. However, when traumatic events are classified into intentional and non-intentional, the median prevalences trend down for the non-intentional trauma exposed populations, while the median prevalences in the intentional trauma category steadily increase from 11.8% to 23.3%. Across five studies with sufficient data, 37.1% of those exposed to intentional trauma develop PTSD. Among those with PTSD, about one third (34.8%) remit after 3 months. Nearly 40% of those with PTSD (39.1%) have a chronic course, and only a very small fraction (3.5%) of new PTSD cases appears after three months. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the trajectories of PTSD over time, and how it may vary by type of traumatic event (intentional vs. non-intentional) will assist public health planning and treatment.
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Santiago et al. observed differences in trajectories for different types of trauma: PTSD prevalence decreased over time for non-violent traumas (20.1% at month 1 and 14.0% at month 12), while median prevalence increased from 11.8% at month 1 to 23.3% at month 12 for violent traumas.
“Differences in trajectories were observed for different types of trauma: whereas PTSD prevalence decreased over time for non-violent traumas (20.1% at month 1 and 14.0% at month 12), the median prevalence increased from 11.8% at month 1 to 23.3% at month 12 for violent traumas.”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA past review of mixed traumas indicated that the prevalence of PTSD stabilizes after three months exposure.
“a past review of mixed traumas which indicated that the prevalence of PTSD stabilizes after three months exposure (Santiago et al., 2013).”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
Santiago et al. (2013) reported decreases in median prevalence of PTSD between 1 month (28.8%) and 3 months (17.8%) post-trauma, followed by stabilization through 12 months (17.0%).
“they reported decreases in the median prevalence of PTSD between 1 month (28.8%) and 3 months (17.8%) post-trauma, followed by a stabilization in prevalence through 12 months (17.0%; Santiago et al., 2013).”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
Prior reviews have the limitation that neither Santiago nor Hiller statistically determined if there was a time point at which the average rate of recovery slowed.
“First, although the Santiago and Hiller reviews found that large reductions in PTSD symptomatology occurred between 1 and 3 months post-trauma, neither statistically determined if there was a time point at which the average rate of recovery slowed (Hiller et al., 2016; Santiago et al., 2013).”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
One-month PTSD prevalence was 74.58% following sexual assault in the current analysis, compared to 28.8% following mixed trauma exposure (Santiago et al., 2013) and 21.3% following childhood trauma (Hiller et al., 2016).
“in the first month post-trauma, PTSD prevalence was 74.58% following sexual assault in the current analysis. In prior meta-analyses, one-month PTSD prevalence was 28.8% following mixed trauma exposure (Santiago et al., 2013) and 21.3% following childhood trauma (Hiller et al., 2016).”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
Twelve-month PTSD prevalence was 41.5% following sexual assault in this study, compared to 17.0% following mixed trauma exposure (Santiago et al., 2013) and 10.9% following childhood trauma (Hiller et al., 2016).
“PTSD prevalence at the twelfth month post-trauma was 41.5% following sexual assault in this study, as compared to prior meta-analyses, which found 17.0% following mixed trauma exposure (Santiago et al., 2013) and 10.9% following childhood trauma (Hiller et al., 2016).”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
The course of PTSD differs by trauma type.
“there is evidence that the course of PTSD differs by trauma type (Santiago et al., 2013).”
From PTSD in the Year Following Sexual Assault: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Santiago et al., 2013
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“As a result, the role of selfcompassion in facilitating meaning-searching may become minimal (Santiago et al. 2013).”
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Packard, A. E. B., Egan, A. E., & Ulrich‐Lai, Y. M. (2016) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/j.2040-4603.2016.tb00722.x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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Carmassi, C., Akiskal, H., Bessonov, D., Massimetti, G., Calderani, E., Stratta, P., Rossi, A., & Dell'Osso, L. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.02.028 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Heesakkers, H., Zegers, M., van Mol, M. M. C., & van den Boogaard, M. (2021) · Intensive and Critical Care Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2021.103034 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Morganstein, J. C., Yang, S. M., Wynn, G. H., Benedek, D. M., & Ursano, R. J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108140416.026 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationThe impact of PTSD symptoms on physical and mental health functioning in returning veterans.
Asnaani, A., Reddy, M. K., & Shea, M. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.01.005 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Other tudies examining course of PTSD have indicated that the prevaence rate can actually increase in a subset of individuals after 2 months or more post-return from deployment (Bonanno et al., 012; Santiago et al., 2013), while the current study assessed paricipants within a time period that spanned from as soon as 2…”
ResultKnipscheer, J. W., Sleijpen, M., Frank, L. E., de Graaf, R., Kleber, R. J., ten Have, M., & Dückers, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17051725 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“A better understanding of the trajectories of reactions over time after exposure to PTE/OLEs can benefit public health planning and treatment [66].”
BackgroundArdi, Z., Albrecht, A., Richter-Levin, A., Saha, R., & Richter-Levin, G. (2016) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2016.01.012 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
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Muldoon, O. T., Lowe, R. D., Jetten, J., Cruwys, T., & Haslam, S. A. (2020) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12709 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“We also know incidence is particularly high in specific risk groups such as first responders, soldiers, and populations affected by rape, war, and political violence (Berger et al., 2012; Breslau, 2009; Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundForman-Hoffman, V., Middleton, J., Feltner, C., Gaynes, B., Weber, R., Bann, C., Viswanathan, M., Lohr, K., Baker, C. E., & Green, J. (2018) · doi:10.23970/ahrqepccer207 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Boccia, M., D’Amico, S., Bianchini, F., Marano, A., Giannini, A. M., & Piccardi, L. (2015) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-015-9387-3 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“025 2 prevalence of PTSD (Husarewycz et al. 2014; Perrin et al. 2013; Ditlevsen and Elklit 2012; Santiago et al. 2013).”
Telepsychology for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A systematic review
Bolton, A., & Dorstyn, D. (2015) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x15571996 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Brewin, C. R., Atwoli, L., Bisson, J. I., Galea, S., Koenen, K. C., & Lewis‐Fernández, R. (2025) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21269 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“For example, the course of untreated PTSD arising from events that are considered intentional (e.g., do-mes tic violence) has more frequently a worsening trajectory and shows a greater tendency to chronicity than that of untreated PTSD after unintentional events (e.g., natural disasters) 15 .”
Machine learning methods to predict child posttraumatic stress: a proof of concept study
Saxe, G., Ma, S.-S., Ren, J.-W., & Aliferis, C. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1384-1 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Of those who experienced a trauma, between 10 and 40% [3 – 5] will develop Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) [6], a disorder that results in significant functional impairment and may have deleterious consequences for brain development [7 – 9].”
BackgroundTrauma-specific grey matter alterations in PTSD
Meng, L., Jiang, J., Jin, C., Liu, J., Zhao, Y., Wang, W., Li, K., & Gong, Q. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep33748 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“This is a well-established meta- analysis toolkit with following features: (1) reconstruction of positive and negative differences in the same signed differential map to avoid any voxel appearing significant in opposite directions; (2) using effect sizes to combine reported peak coordinates with statistical parametric…”
BackgroundMethodRanney, M. L., Patena, J. V., Nugent, N. R., Spirito, A., Boyer, E. W., Zatzick, D., & Cunningham, R. M. (2015) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.12.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) following captivity: a 24-year longitudinal study
Zerach, G., Shevlin, M., Cloitre, M., & Solomon, Z. (2019) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1616488 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“As a result, captivity has been consistently recognized as a highly pathogenic experience (Santiago et al., 2013), with extensive, wide-spread mental and physical ramifications.”
BackgroundPosttraumatic Growth as a Response to Natural Disasters in Children and Adolescents
Bernstein, M., & Pfefferbaum, B. J. (2018) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-018-0900-4 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Life Course Epidemiology of Trauma and Related Psychopathology in Civilian Populations
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Diamond, P. R., Airdrie, J. N., Hiller, R. M., Fraser, A., Hiscox, L. V., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. E., & Halligan, S. L. (2022) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2022.2066456 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…of PTSD in the year following trauma were 27% at 1 month, 18% at 3 months, 20% at 6 months, 21% at 9 months, 17% at 12 months, and 21% at 24 months, estimates that are broadly consistent with conclusions based on non-meta-analytic review of the longitudinal evidence base (Santiago et al., 2013).”
InfluentialWoolgar, F., Garfield, H., Dalgleish, T., & Meiser‐Stedman, R. (2021) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.05.026 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Dewar, M., Paradis, A., & Fortin, C. A. (2019) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743719875602 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Lin, J. E., Neylan, T. C., Epel, E., & O’Donovan, A. (2016) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2015.11.015 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“For instance, intentional traumas that involving the deliberate infliction of harm have been shown to confer worse health outcomes than non-intentional traumas (Santiago et al., 2013).”
Papini, S., Pisner, D., Shumake, J., Powers, M. B., Beevers, C. G., Rainey, E. E., Smits, J. A. J., & Warren, A. M. (2018) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.10.004 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“, 2016) and meta-analyses of trauma-exposed samples (Santiago et al., 2013) indicates recovery from traumatic stressors is the modal outcome, a substantial minority of traumaexposed individuals develop a chronic form of PTSD that is associated with psychiatric”
BackgroundCrowdsourcing Trauma: Psychopathology in a Trauma‐Exposed Sample Recruited via Mechanical Turk
van Stolk‐Cooke, K., Brown, A., Maheux, A. J., Parent, J. M., Forehand, R., & Price, M. (2018) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22303 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Birkeland, M. S., & Heir, T. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1333387 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Among the well-known risk factors or covariates of posttraumatic stress are high severity of exposure (Santiago et al., 2013), being female (Olff, Langeland, Draijer, & Gersons, 2007), low levels of social support (Charuvastra & Cloitre, 2008; Ozer, Best, Lipsey, & Weiss, 2003), and high neuroticism (Ormel et al.”
BackgroundMultiple Vantage Points on the Mental Health Effects of Mass Shootings
Shultz, J., Thoresen, S., Flynn, B. W., Muschert, G., Shaw, J., Espinel, Z., Walter, F., Gaither, J. B., García-Bárcena, Y., O'Keefe, K. A., et al. (2014) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0469-5 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Dunn, E. C., Nishimi, K. M., Neumann, A., Renaud, A., Cecil, C. A. M., Susser, E., & Tiemeier, H. W. (2019) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.02.022 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Luz, M. P., Coutinho, E. S. F., Berger, W., Mendlowicz, M. V., Vilete, L. M. P., Mello, M. F., Quintana, M. I., Bressan, R. A., Andreoli, S. B., Mari, J. D. J., et al. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.011 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…the general population involves many mental health-related conditions (World Health Organization, 2002; Ribeiro et al., 2013; Cerd a et al., 2012; Santiago et al., 2013), and affects not only the direct victim but many other indirect victims, such as family, friends, witnesses and rescue workers…”
BackgroundVandentorren, S., Pirard, P., Sanna, A., Aubert, L., Motreff, Y., Dantchev, N., Lesieur, S., Chauvin, P., & Baubet, T. (2018) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2017.63 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Voelkel, E., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Walter, K. H., & Chard, K. (2015) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22006 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Hudays, A., Gallagher, R. D., Hazazi, A., Arishi, A., & Bahari, G. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416836 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Traumatic symptoms resolve over time without any intervention in approximately 60% of individuals [9].”
BackgroundInfluentialFeingold, D., Neria, Y., & Bitan, D. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.04.022 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Nicholson, A. A., Rabellino, D., Densmore, M., Frewen, P., Paret, C., Kluetsch, R. C., Schmahl, C. G., Théberge, J., Ros, T., Neufeld, R. W. J., et al. (2018) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24244 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric illness estimated to occur in approximately 25% of individuals exposed to or witnessing a traumatic event (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundDerivois, D., Cénat, J., Joseph, N. E., Karray, A., & Chahraoui, K. (2017) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.034 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Oe, M., Maeda, M., Nagai, M., Yasumura, S., Yabe, H., Suzuki, Y., Harigane, M., Ohira, T., & Abe, M. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013400 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Hoskins, M. D., Sinnerton, R., Nakamura, A., Underwood, J. F. G., Slater, A., Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Bisson, J. I., Lee, M., & Clarke, L. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1853379 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Post-traumatic stress disorder is a common, serious and debilitating illness, that often runs a chronic course (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundIs Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) a comparable recruitment source for trauma studies?
Engle, K., Talbot, M., & Samuelson, K. W. (2020) · Psychological Trauma · doi:10.1037/tra0000502 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The Development of Trauma and Resilience Competencies for Nursing Education
Wheeler, K., & Phillips, K. E. (2019) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/1078390319878779 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“8% at 1 month to 17% at 12 months after a traumatic event (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialPosttraumatic growth in students, crime survivors and trauma workers exposed to adversity
Brooks, M., Lowe, M., Graham‐Kevan, N., & Robinson, S. J. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.051 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Collectively, exposure to intentional and repeat events place people at great vulnerability to substance dependency, depressionandelevated PTSD symptoms(Ruback, Clark, & Warner,2014;Scarpa,Haden,&Hurley,2006),overandabovethein fl u-ence of natural occurrences (Santiago et al., 2013).”
InfluentialFigueroa, R., Cortés, P., Marín, H., Vergés, A., Gillibrand, R., & Repetto, P. (2022) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2022.2031829 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) prevalence: an umbrella review
Schincariol, A., Orrù, G., Otgaar, H., Sartori, G., & Scarpazza, C. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724002319 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“This outcome is not in line with earlier research that demonstrated that sexual violence and other intentional traumas had more severe and incapacitating psychological effects than exposure to non-intentional traumatic events (Breslau, 2009; Pietrzak et al., 2011; Santiago et al., 2013).”
InfluentialThe workplace integration of veterans: Applying diversity and fit perspectives
González, J. A., & Simpson, J. (2020) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2020.100775 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“While many of these studies employ cross-sectional designs, their findings are consistent with the major findings on trauma and PTG in the field of psychology (Jayawickreme & Blackie, 2014; Santiago et al., 2013).”
Incidence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After Road Traffic Accident
Fekadu, W., Mekonen, T., Belete, H., Belete, A., & Yohannes, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00519 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Fruchtman-Steinbok, T., Keynan, J. N., Cohen, A., Jaljuli, I., Mermelstein, S., Drori, G., Routledge, E., Krasnoshtein, M., Playle, R., Linden, D. E. J., et al. (2021) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102859 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), is a chronic and debilitating condition (Benjet, 2016; Karam, 2014), affecting approximately 15% of trauma-exposed individuals (Breslau et al., 1991; Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundGuidelines for the treatment of PTSD using clinical EFT (emotional freedom techniques)
Church, D., Stapleton, P., Mollon, P., Feinstein, D., Boath, E., Mackay, D., & Sims, R. (2018) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare6040146 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Trauma and psychosis symptoms in a sample of help-seeking youth.
Kline, E., Millman, Z., Denenny, D. M., Wilson, C., Thompson, E. C., Demro, C., Connors, K., Bussell, K., Reeves, G., & Schiffman, J. (2016) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2016.04.006 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Defeating the fear: New insights into the neurobiology of stress susceptibility
Krishnan, V. (2014) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.05.012 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Cénat, J. M., Dalexis, R. D., Darius, W. P., Kogan, C. S., & Guerrier, M. (2022) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437221128462 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“1–3 Whereas the majority of those exposed to various traumas can access resources, coping strategies, and resiliency mechanisms, some develop varying degrees of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms.(4) Indeed, PTSD is one of the most prevalent mental health problems.”
BackgroundOphuis, R., Olij, B. F., Polinder, S., & Haagsma, J. (2018) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1890-9 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Tsai, J., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2017) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12800 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Valiente, C., Vázquez, C., Contreras, A., Peinado, V., & Trucharte, A. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1871555 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Although it is well known that resilience is the most common psychological pattern in facing adverse life circumstances (Santiago et al., 2013), the relatively high rates of individuals with either sustained or delayed stress in our population study seem to warn that we are facing serious mental…”
BackgroundDevens, C., Tshabalala, T., McManus, J. S., & Smuts, B. (2018) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12512 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Nicholson, A. A., Densmore, M., Frewen, P., Neufeld, R. W. J., Théberge, J., Jetly, R., Lanius, R. A., & Ros, T. (2023) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcad068 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Kessler, R., Ressler, K., House, S., Beaudoin, F., An, X., Stevens, J. S., Zeng, D., Neylan, T., Linnstaedt, S., Germine, L., et al. (2020) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-020-00911-3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Sakuma, A., Ueda, I., Shoji, W., Tomita, H., Matsuoka, H., & Matsumoto, K. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.152 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Measuring the diffusion of innovations with paragraph vector topic models
Lenz, D., & Winker, P. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226685 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The relation between adverse childhood experiences and moral injury in the Canadian Armed Forces
Battaglia, A. M., Protopopescu, A., Boyd, J. E., Lloyd, C., Jetly, R., O’Connor, C., Hood, H. K., Nazarov, A., Rhind, S. G., Lanius, R. A., et al. (2019) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1546084 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“In particular, mere exposure to morally injurious events or childhood emotional abuse may not always result in MI, in the same manner in which exposure to trauma does not always lead to PTSD (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundDokkedahl, S., Kristensen, T. R., Murphy, S., & Elklit, A. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1863580 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Choi, K. W., Shaffer, K., Zale, E. L., Funes, C. J., Koenen, K., Tehan, T., Rosand, J., & Vranceanu, A.-M. (2018) · Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1097/ccm.0000000000002988 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Sabban, E., & Serova, L. (2018) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usx228 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Birkeland, M. S., Nielsen, M. B., Hansen, M., Knardahl, S., & Heir, T. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1302692 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Intentional traumatic events are associated with worse health outcomes than inadvertent harm (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSadeh, N., Miller, M. W., Wolf, E. J., & Harkness, K. L. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.01.003 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Traumatic Stress in Overview: Definition, Context, Scope, and Long-Term Outcomes
Gerhart, J. I., Canetti, D., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18866-9_1 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Despite this overall pattern, there is considerable variability observed in the course of PTSD prevalence and symptom severity over time (Bonanno & Mancini, 2012; Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundThe role of cognitive flexibility in moderating the effect of school-related stress exposure
Harel, O., Hemi, A., & Levy‐Gigi, E. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-31743-0 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Stefano, C. D., Orri, M., Agostinucci, J., Zouaghi, H., Lapostolle, F., Baubet, T., & Adnet, F. (2018) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22724 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“foundadifference between “intentional” (terrorism, war, personal violence) and “nonintentional” (natural disasters) traumatic events and an increased onset of PTSD over time for “intentional” events (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundPutica, A., Dam, N. V. V., Steward, T., Agathos, J. A., Felmingham, K., & O'Donnell, M. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.100 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Trajectories of traumatic stress symptoms during conflict: A latent class growth analysis.
Greene, T., Gelkopf, M., Grinapol, S., Werbeloff, N., Carlson, E., & Lapid, L. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.05.036 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“It should be noted, however, that peritraumatic resilience may not necessarily translate to posttraumatic resilience and some of those in the low and reducing trajectories may experience delayed reactions, with symptoms emerging or worsening at a later stage (Santiago et al., 2013).”
BackgroundPTSD's underlying symptom dimensions and relations with behavioral inhibition and activation.
Contractor, A. A., Elhai, J., Ractliffe, K. C., & Forbes, D. (2013) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.07.007 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Zeamer, A. L., Salive, M.-C., An, X., Beaudoin, F. L., House, S. L., Stevens, J. S., Zeng, D., Neylan, T. C., Clifford, G. D., Linnstaedt, S. D., et al. (2023) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-023-02643-8 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Degenhardt, L. J., Bharat, C., Glantz, M. D., Bromet, E. J., Alonso, J., Bruffaerts, R., Bunting, B., de Girolamo, G., de Jonge, P., Florescu, S., et al. (2022) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109574 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
- Authors
- Santiago, P. N., Ursano, R. J., Gray, C. L., Pynoos, R. S., Spiegel, D., Lewis-Fernandez, R., Friedman, M. J., & Fullerton, C. S.
- Affiliations
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- United States Department of Veterans Affairs (US)
- Corresponding author
- Santiago, Patcho N.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2013-04-11
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- e59236
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3623968
- OpenAlex
- W2035901807
- Cited by
- 536
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 53 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 4.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD prevalence, PTSD trajectories, chronic PTSD, PTSD remission, resilience
- MeSH terms
- Epilepsy, Post-Traumatic, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Time Factors, Wounds and Injuries, Prevalence, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, PubMed
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