Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Background: It is unclear how many children and adolescents develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after trauma. Aims: To determine the incidence of PTSD in trauma-exposed children and adolescents as assessed with well-established diagnostic interviews and to examine potential moderators of the estimate. Method: A systematic literature search identified 72 peer-reviewed articles on 43 independent samples ( n = 3563). Samples consisting only of participants seeking or receiving mental health treatment were excluded. Main analyses involved pooled incidence estimates and meta-analyses of variance. Results: The overall rate of PTSD was 15.9% (95% CI 11.5–21.5), which varied according to the type of trauma and gender. Least at risk were boys exposed to non-interpersonal trauma (8.4%, 95% CI 4.7–14.5), whereas girls exposed to interpersonal trauma showed the highest rate (32.9%, 95% CI 19.8–49.3). No significant difference was found for the choice of assessment interview or the informant of the assessment. Conclusions: Research conducted with the best available assessment instruments shows that a significant minority of children and adolescents develop PTSD after trauma exposure, with those exposed to interpersonal trauma and girls at particular risk. The estimates provide a benchmark for DSM-5 and ICD-11.
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Childhood trauma has been linked to PTSD, insomnia, anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, maladaptive daydreaming, hallucinations, borderline personality disorder, disruptive behavior, risky behaviors, substance abuse, antisocial behavior, and eating disorders.
“Specifically, childhood trauma has been linked to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (12), insomnia (13), anxiety (14), depression (15, 16), bipolar disorder (17, 18), maladaptive daydreaming (MD) (19), hallucinations (20), borderline personality disorder (21), disruptive behavior (22), risky behaviors (23, 24), substance abuse (25, 26), antisocial behavior (27), and eating disorders (28, 29).”
From Epigenetic Modifications in Stress Response Genes Associated With Childhood Trauma (2019) · cites this paper as [12]
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“This severity can be explained by the cumulative and chronic nature of the trauma experienced [65, 66], emotion regulation difficulties typical of adolescence, and recruitment from specialized hospital units in psychotraumatology and sleep.”
- Authors
- Alisic, E., Zalta, A. K., van Wesel, F., Larsen, S. E., Hafstad, G. S., Hassanpour, K., & Smid, G. E.
- Affiliations
- Rush University Medical Center (US)
- Medical College of Wisconsin (US)
- Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies (NO)
- University Hospital Zurich (CH)
- Foundation Centrum '45 (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Alisic, Eva
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2014-05
- Volume
- 204
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 335-340
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2165913734
- Cited by
- 930
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 93 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 104 · 2023: 83 · 2022: 95 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 100 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 5.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (acceptedVersion)
- Monash University Research Portal (Monash University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Vanderbilt University
- International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, children, adolescents, trauma exposure, PTSD incidence, interpersonal trauma, non-interpersonal trauma, gender differences, diagnostic interview, DSM-5, ICD-11
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Child, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Incidence, Prevalence
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