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Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners
Open accessAbstract
Frankincense, the oleogum resin from Boswellia sp., has been an early luxury good in both Western and Eastern societies and is particularly used in Christian funerary and liturgical rites. The scant grave goods in late medieval burials comprise laterally perforated pottery vessels which are usually filled with charcoal. They occur in most regions of western Europe and are interpreted as incense burners but have never been investigated with advanced analytical techniques. We herein present chemical and anthracological results on perforated funerary pots from 4 Wallonian sites dating to the 12-14th century AD. Chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis of lipid extracts of the ancient residues and comparison with extracts from four Boswellia species clearly evidence the presence of degraded frankincense in the former, based on characteristic triterpenoids, viz. boswellic and tirucallic acids, and their myriad dehydrated and oxygenated derivatives. Cembrane-type diterpenoids indicate B. sacra (southern Arabia) and B. serrata (India) as possible botanical origins. Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost. Additionally, markers of ruminant fats in one sample from a domestic context indicate that this vessel was used for food preparation. Anthracological analysis demonstrates that the charcoal was used as fuel only and that no fragrant wood species were burned. The chars derived from local woody plants and were most likely recovered from domestic fires. Furthermore, vessel recycling is indicated by both contextual and biomarker evidence. The results shed a new light on funerary practices in the Middle Ages and at the same time reveal useful insights into the chemistry of burned frankincense. The discovery of novel biomarkers, namely Δ2-boswellic acids and a series of polyunsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, demonstrates the high potential for organic chemical analyses of incense residues.
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TL;DR
GC-MS and anthracological analyses of 26 perforated late medieval funerary pots from four southern Belgian sites provide the first material proof that these vessels were used as censers, with degraded frankincense as the major incense ingredient. The residues also show possible juniper and pine tar admixture, charcoal fuel from local domestic fires, and one domestic vessel used for food preparation.
Key findings
- Frankincense was identified in residues from Rebecq, Quaregnon and Liège through boswellic and tirucallic acids and their degradation products, including abundant 24-nortriterpenoids and newly identified Δ2-boswellic acids; original cembrane alcohols, tirucallic acids, boswellic and lupeolic acids were only trace.
- Cembrane-type diterpenoids in samples Q11, L14 and L15 indicate *Boswellia sacra* (southern Arabia) and *B. serrata* (India) as possible botanical origins, while *B. papyrifera* and *B. carterii* are excluded by serratol dominance.
- Traces of juniper biomarkers (ferruginol, totarol and ketones) in Q11 and Q12, and pine tar markers in R2, R9, Q10, L14 and L15, suggest small amounts of locally available fragrances or earlier vessel uses; sample N13 from a domestic cesspit contained heated ruminant fats and faecal biomarkers, indicating food preparation.
- Anthracological analysis of 1,854 charcoal fragments from 21 pots yielded at least 11 taxa, dominated by oak, beech or hornbeam; no fragrant wood species were burned, and charcoal was likely recovered from domestic fires, with beech-only assemblages in seven Rebecq pitchers possibly indicating intentionally produced charcoal.
Methods
- Twenty-six perforated pots from four Wallonian sites (Rebecq, Quaregnon, Namur, Liège, plus Huy in Table 1) dated to the 12th–14th century AD were selected from 192 known Belgian perforated pots; residue analysis was performed on 8 unwashed pots, including surface residues, absorbed ceramic residues and vessel fillings.
- Lipid extracts were obtained with chloroform:methanol (2:1 v/v), derivatised with BSTFA+1%TMCS and analysed by GC-MS; commercial resins from *B. papyrifera*, *B. carterii*, *B. sacra* and *B. serrata* were extracted and derivatised identically for comparison.
- Charcoal from 21 pots was identified by manual fracture along three planes and reflected light microscopy (50–500x), with a minimum of 100 fragments per pot where available.
Limitations
- Stated: species-level identification is very preliminary because only one commercial sample per *Boswellia* species was analysed; the authors call for further research on inter- and intraspecies variability.
- Stated: many identification criteria that apply to fresh frankincense, such as the ratio of 3-O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid to 11-keto-β-boswellic acid and percentages of lupane or tirucallane compounds, cannot be used for ancient residues because relative concentrations may change during pyrolysis or burial.
- Evident: residue analysis covered only 8 of 26 pots and four sites, and the absence of frankincense markers in sample Q10 might be due to extensive washing after excavation, as the authors note.
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In the paper
“The molecular composition of sample Q10 has a deviating pattern and consists exclusively of diterpenoids (Figure 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“The discovery of novel biomarkers, namely Δ2-boswellic acids and a series of polyunsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, demonstrates the high potential for organic chemical analyses of incense residues.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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In the paper
“Major triterpenoids in all species are boswellic acids and their 3-O-acetyl derivatives with a clear ursane over oleanane predominance (Figure 2, Table 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“Analyses of modern frankincense, however, demonstrate that the formation of these analytical artifacts is rather limited (cf. peaks 9–10 in Figure 2a).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“However, in samples R2, R9, Q11 and Q12, the m/z 292 ion chromatograms also revealed two clear peaks at slightly earlier retention times, viz. peak 16 and 18 in Figure 2. The corresponding peak areas of the total ion chromatograms reveal that they are much more abundant (4.0–7.2 µg g−1) than the boswellic acids.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Dehydroabietic acid, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid, retene and some pimaric acids are also detected in trace amounts in samples R2, R9, Q11, L14 and L15.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Anthracological analysis demonstrates that the charcoal was used as fuel only and that no fragrant wood species were burned.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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In the paper
“The lipid extracts of both the absorbed and surface residues of sample N13 consist predominantly of aliphatic compounds (Figure 6).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“The chars derived from local woody plants and were most likely recovered from domestic fires.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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In the paper
“Phenolic diterpenes ferruginol, totarol and their corresponding ketones are detected in trace amounts (0.1–0.3 µg g−1) in samples Q11 and Q12 (Figure 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Additionally, the chromatograms of samples R2, R9, Q11 and Q12 showed smaller peaks of other dehydrated boswellic acid derivatives, namely ursa-2,9(11),12-trien-24-oic acid and 11-keto-ursa-2,12-dien-24-oic acid.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Major peaks (∼10–100 µg g−1) in the chromatograms of surface residues from Rebecq, Quaregnon and Liège are from 24-norursa-3,9(11),12-triene, 24-norursa-3,12-diene, 24-norursa-3,12-dien-11-one, 3-O-acetyl-ursa-9(11),12-diene, α-amyrenone, 3-O-acetyl-α-amyrin and corresponding oleanane type compounds (Figure 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“The diterpenoid profile consists mainly of cembrane type alcohols such as incensol, serratol and incensol acetate.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“The surfaces residues and vessel fillings of most perforated pots consist predominantly of ursane- and oleanane-type triterpenoids besides an array of minor aliphatic lipids (e.g. fatty acids, alkanols, alkanes) and synthetic contaminants (e.g. oleamide, phthalates).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Anthracological analysis demonstrates that the charcoal was used as fuel only and that no fragrant wood species were burned.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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In the paper
“A reversed pattern is observed for amyrins and lupanes which are most abundant in B. sacra and B. carterii (Table 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“Chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis of lipid extracts of the ancient residues and comparison with extracts from four Boswellia species clearly evidence the presence of degraded frankincense in the former, based on characteristic triterpenoids, viz. boswellic and tirucallic acids, and their myriad dehydrated and oxygenated derivatives.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The chemical composition of modern commercial Boswellia resins is representative of the ancient frankincense used in the archaeological pots.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The charcoal assemblage from all the studied funerary pots is dominated by oak (Quercus sp.), beech (Fagus sylvatica) or hornbeam (Carpinus betulus).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Major peaks (30–170 µg g−1) were from abietane compounds such as 18-norabieta-8,11,13-triene, tetrahydroretene, retene, 13-isopropyl-5α-podocarpa-6,8,11,13-tetraen-16-oic acid, dehydroabietic acid, 15-hydroxydehydroabietic acid and 7-oxodehydroabietic acid. Pimarane compounds such as isopimara-8,15-dien-8-oic acid, pimaric acid, sandaracopimaric acid, isopimaric acid are also present.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Trace amounts (0.1–0.2 µg g−1) of boswellic acids are observed in two samples (R9 and Q11) after selected ion chromatogram screening using the retro-Diels-Alder (rDA) fragment at m/z 292 and the molecular ion (M+•) at m/z 600 (peak 19 and 20 in insets of Figure 2b and 2d).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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“Of particular interest are also the polyunsaturated hydrocarbons and PAHs which were present in minor amounts.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“Not only was the pot found in a cesspit from an urban domestic site, it also contained clear markers of heated ruminant fats suggesting its use as a cooking vessel.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“For instance, samples R2, R9, Q10, L14 and L15 displayed traces of pine tar.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“24-nortriterpenoids were abundant compounds in most samples and are formed from boswellic acids during pyrolysis.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
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In the paper
“More interesting are the biomarkers ferruginol, totarol and corresponding ketones which were identified in samples Q11 and Q12.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“We report herein the first material proof of their function as censers and, in one case, for food preparation.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The perforated pots from southern Belgium have not been investigated in depth by advanced scientific techniques.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We report herein the first material proof of their function as censers and, in one case, for food preparation.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The perforated pots from southern Belgium have not been investigated in depth by advanced scientific techniques.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Novel compounds, namely Δ2-boswellic acids, were identified based on mass spectral data and retention characteristics.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
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In the paper
“Anthracological analysis revealed that charcoal was most likely recycled from domestic fires in two thirds of the cases, whereas the remaining vessels might contain intentionally produced charcoal.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
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In the paper
“The vessel from Namur (N13), however, lacks clear evidence for incense burning, which possibly indicates that the vessel was pierced to adapt it for use in funerary rituals but has never been actually used for that purpose.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“Absorbed residues from vessels R2 and R9 did not contain lipids which could be related to a vessel use other than incense burning, although markers for pine tar in the corresponding surface residues might relate to an earlier use associated with liquid handling or storage.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“Not only was the pot found in a cesspit from an urban domestic site, it also contained clear markers of heated ruminant fats suggesting its use as a cooking vessel.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“Furthermore, the pine tar signature of vessel Q10 constitutes another possible indication for vessel recycling.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“Chemical analyses evidenced that frankincense was used as the major incense ingredient and that small amounts of juniper and possibly pine resin have been added, most likely to reduce the cost.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Frankincense contains a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unaltered frankincense compounds such as boswellic acids, tirucallic acids and cembrane type alcohols were only present in trace amounts.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
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In the paper
“Minor traces of pine tar were also found in samples Q11, L14 and L15.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“Except for the vessels that were perforated before firing, the vessels themselves were probably not primarily made for censing as we found indications that some of them have been used for alimentary purposes.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chemical analyses evidenced that frankincense was used as the major incense ingredient and that small amounts of juniper and possibly pine resin have been added, most likely to reduce the cost.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Frankincense contains a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“To date, these compounds have only been identified in sedimentary rocks and lake or deep-sea sediments of geological age, e.g. [52], [53], [55], [56], [68].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [52] KH Freeman, 1994, The Effect of Aromatization on the Isotopic Compositions of Hydrocarbons During Early Diagenesis, Org Geochem source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [53] SA Stout, 1992, Aliphatic and Aromatic Triterpenoid Hydrocarbons in A Tertiary Angiospermous Lignite, Org Geochem source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] HL ten Haven, 1992, Early Diagenetic Transformation of Higher-Plant Triterpenoids in Deep-Sea Sediments from Baffin-Bay, Geochim Cosmochim Ac source
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In the paper
“Apart from natural degradation, they may also be formed in the hot injector of the gas chromatograph [20], [26].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [20] C Mathe, 2004, Characterization of archaeological frankincense by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Chromatogr A source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
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In the paper
“The chars derived from local woody plants and were most likely recovered from domestic fires.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Although these concentrations are quite low in comparison to food residues from other sites [27] and could possibly be interpreted as background contamination [61], [62], they are detected together with compounds that are typically associated with food processing, e.g. azelaic acid, C18 vicinal dihydroxy fatty acids, C18 ω-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids and C31–35 mid-chain ketones.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Check pendingcites [27] J Baeten, 2013, Molecular evidence for the mixing of Meat, Fish and Vegetables in Anglo-Saxon coarseware from Hamwic, UK, Archaeometry source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] RP Evershed, 2008, Experimental approaches to the interpretation of absorbed organic residues in archaeological ceramics, World Archaeology source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [62] V Steele, 2013, Organic residues in archaeology: the highs and lows of recent research, ACS symposium series source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“while the second compound (peak 18, Figure 4b) corresponds to the ursane structure, viz. Δ2-β-boswellic acid (ursa-2,12-dien-24-oic acid).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, their high abundance in the archaeological residues (peaks 7–10 in Figure 2b, 2d) suggests that they represent markers for degraded frankincense.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The higher intensity of the m/z 203 ion in the first compound (peak 16, Figure 4a) is diagnostic for an oleanane structure, viz. Δ2-α-boswellic acid (oleana-2,12-dien-24-oic acid)”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cembrane-type diterpenoids indicate B. sacra (southern Arabia) and B. serrata (India) as possible botanical origins.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The species-specific chemical markers used to identify Boswellia species survive degradation and burning in archaeological residues.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, vessel recycling is indicated by both contextual and biomarker evidence.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These abietane and pimarane diterpenoids are highly diagnostic for a tar derived from the Pinaceae family [58], [59].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] IM Egenberg, 2002, Characterisation of traditionally kiln produced pine tar by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Anal Appl Pyr source
- Not checked yetcites [59] Mills JS, White R (1994) The organic chemistry of museum objects. Oxford: Butterworths-Heinemann. 206 p.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the presence of ring A contracted neotriterpenoids and Δ9(11),12 triterpenoids (Figure 8) testifies that dehydration processes have indeed taken place.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, markers of ruminant fats in one sample from a domestic context indicate that this vessel was used for food preparation.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Peaks at m/z 495 and m/z 510 clearly mark the [M–15]+ and [M]+• ions, respectively, and enable to identify these compounds as dehydrated (or deacetoxylated) boswellic acids, i.e. the alcohol (or acetoxy) group at C-3 has been lost together with a hydrogen at C-2 resulting in the formation a Δ2 double bond.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“All identified taxa can have occurred in the vegetation surrounding the sites [66].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] Lambinon J, De Langhe J-E, Delvosalle L, Duvigneaud J (1998) Flora van België, het Groothertogdom Luxemburg, Noord-Frankrijk en de aangrenzende gebieden (Pteridofyten en Spermatofyten). Meise: Nationale Plantentuin van België.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“These compounds provide unambiguous evidence for the heating of fatty materials in ceramic vessels at temperatures above 300°C [63], [64].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [63] AM Raven, 1997, Formation of long-chain ketones in archaeological pottery vessels by pyrolysis of acyl lipids, J Anal Appl Pyr source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [64] RP Evershed, 2008, Experimental evidence for the processing of marine animal products and other commodities containing polyunsaturated fatty acids in pottery vessels, Archaeometry source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As stated above, boswellic acids and their derivatives are highly diagnostic for frankincense.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Boswellic acids and their derivatives are specific for Boswellia species, particularly B. carterii, B. sacra, B papyrifera and B. serrata [1], [22], [26].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Langenheim JH (2003) Plant resins. Chemistry, evolution, ecology and ethnobotany. Cambridge: Timber Press. 586 p.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [22] PF van Bergen, 1997, Chemical evidence for archaeological frankincense: Boswellic acids and their derivatives in solvent soluble and insoluble fractions of resin-like materials, Tetrahedron Lett source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chemotaxonomic screening of the lipid extracts has provided unambiguous proof for frankincense, viz. the oleo-gum resin of Boswellia sp., but also revealed that the chemical signatures were greatly altered and differed almost completely from those of fresh frankincense (cf. Figure 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Furthermore, mid-chain ketones, when formed by condensation of saturated fatty acids, can provide information as to the source of the fatty material, based on the distribution of the carbonyl position [27].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Check pendingcites [27] J Baeten, 2013, Molecular evidence for the mixing of Meat, Fish and Vegetables in Anglo-Saxon coarseware from Hamwic, UK, Archaeometry source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The recovery of charcoal from domestic contexts is further supported by the presence of charred seeds and bones in perforated pots (L14, L17) from the cathedral of Liège.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Radical pathways leading to the formation of more toxic and higher molecular weight PAHs, e.g. benzo[a]pyrene and benzofluoroanthenes, only proceed at temperatures in excess of 400°C [72].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [72] M Keiluweit, 2012, Solvent-Extractable Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Biochar: Influence of Pyrolysis Temperature and Feedstock, Environmental Science & Technology source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that the juniper biomarkers only occurred in trace mounts indicates that frankincense must have been the dominant resin compound.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our data on charcoal and organic residues present, for the first time, clear material proof for the interpretation that funerary vessels in northwestern Europe have been primarily used as censers.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“that the pots were used as soon as the corpse is placed on the bier as evidenced by iconographic sources (Figure S2) [31].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Challe S (2014) Les céramiques funéraires en Belgique entre le XIIe et le début du XVe siècle. In: Actes du colloque “Des pots dans la tombe (IXe-XVIIIes.). Regards croisés sur une pratique funéraire en Europe de l’Ouest”, Caen, 30–31 mai 2012.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Sandarac resin, derived from Tetraclinis, can also be excluded as this resin should also contain free diterpenoids such as sandaracopimaric acid and acetoxy agatholic acid, even after aging or pyrolysis [75].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [75] D Scalarone, 2003, Ageing behaviour and analytical pyrolysis characterisation of diterpenic resins used as art materials: Manila copal and sandarac, J Anal Appl Pyr source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Nevertheless, the species B. frereana, B. neglecta and B. rivae can be excluded because these resins do not contain boswellic acids in significant amounts [26], [74].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
- Check pendingcites [74] Bergmann J (2004) Untersuchungen zum Harz des Weihrauchbaums (Boswellia spp.) unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Säurefraktion [dissertation]. TUM München.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that most perforated vessels are ordinary domestic ceramics and have been pierced after firing suggests that the vessels had an earlier use-phase prior to their use as censers.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only was the pot found in a cesspit from an urban domestic site, it also contained clear markers of heated ruminant fats suggesting its use as a cooking vessel.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the Belgian contexts, however, holy water was not kept in ovoid pots or pitchers but rather in recipients which have a more open form and are made of stoneware, glass or tin [31], [78].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Challe S (2014) Les céramiques funéraires en Belgique entre le XIIe et le début du XVe siècle. In: Actes du colloque “Des pots dans la tombe (IXe-XVIIIes.). Regards croisés sur une pratique funéraire en Europe de l’Ouest”, Caen, 30–31 mai 2012.
- Not checked yetcites [78] Fontaine-Hodiamont C (2008) D’Ennion au Val Saint-Lambert, le verre soufflé-moulé. In: Actes de 23e Recontres de l’Association Francaise pour l’Archéologie du Verre, Colloque international, Bruxelles-Namur, 17–19 octobre 2008.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the pine tar signature of vessel Q10 constitutes another possible indication for vessel recycling.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Heating in contact with ceramics or charcoal induces myriad chemical transformations but, fortunately, not necessarily to such an extent that the original incense material cannot be recognized anymore.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Frankincense contains a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although frankincense triterpenoids may not necessarily behave in the same way as pine wood diterpenoids, the low abundance of the polyunsaturated hydrocarbons and PAHs and the absence of higher molecular weight PAHs seems to suggest that these funerary pots have undergone only mild pyrolytic conditions.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Except for the vessels that were perforated before firing, the vessels themselves were probably not primarily made for censing as we found indications that some of them have been used for alimentary purposes.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The ovoid pot from Namur (N13) represents the clearest evidence for a domestic provenance.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results have demonstrated the high potential of chemical analyses to identify incense mixtures in perforated funerary pots but further research is needed to assess variability on a larger interregional scale.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Few chemical analyses have been performed on remnants of incense ritual.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chemical analyses evidenced that frankincense was used as the major incense ingredient and that small amounts of juniper and possibly pine resin have been added, most likely to reduce the cost.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Frankincense contains a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Particularly the latter were nevertheless instructive to indicate Boswellia sacra and Boswellia serrata as possible botanical sources.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, small amounts of polyunsaturated and fully aromatic hydrocarbons and the absence of toxic PAHs such as benzo[a]pyrene are indicative for mild pyrolysis conditions.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, a single vessel from a domestic context (sample N13) seems to have been used for food-related purposes.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Charcoals from the pots from Liège and Huy and from two pots from Rebecq, show a rather high number of taxa, probably reflecting the collection of charcoal from domestic fireplaces.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“24-nortriterpenoids were abundant compounds in most samples and are formed from boswellic acids during pyrolysis.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, many identification criteria that apply for fresh frankincense, such as the ratio of 3-O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid to 11-keto-β-boswellic acid and the percentages of lupane or tirucallane compounds [45], [46], cannot be used for the ancient residues.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [45] B Buchele, 2003, Analysis of pentacyclic triterpenic acids from frankincense gum resins and related phytopharmaceuticals by high-performance liquid chromatography. Identification of lupeolic acid, a novel pentacyclic triterpene, Journal of Chromatography B-Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Paul M (2012) Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively Boswellia carterii [dissertation]. Saarland University, Saarbrücken. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the 12th century, grave gifts reappeared, however with a different functionality.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anthracological analysis revealed that charcoal was most likely recycled from domestic fires in two thirds of the cases, whereas the remaining vessels might contain intentionally produced charcoal.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The latter are known to be depleted in intrusive soil lipids [50], [84], [85], thus avoiding uncertainty in the interpretation of potentially food-derived lipids that were detected in some of the residues (viz. traces of fatty acids, alkanols and alkanes).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Kimpe K (2003) Chemical analysis of the lipid fraction from ancient ceramics of Sagalassos. [dissertation]. KU Leuven.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [84] SN Dudd, 1998, Assessing microbial lipid contributions during laboratory degradations of fats and oils and pure triacylglycerols absorbed in ceramic potsherds, Org Geochem source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [85] C Heron, 1991, Effects of Migration of Soil Lipids on Organic Residues Associated with Buried Potsherds, J Archaeol Sci source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These compounds represent dehydration products which may have formed during mild pyrolysis or during prolonged contact with desiccants such as charcoal.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This interpretation is supported by the find in sample R1 of a chunk of clay fused with the ashes of a fire into a glassy fuel ash slag, typical for high temperature processes and furnaces used in artisanal activities.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
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In the paper
“For instance, relative concentrations of amyrins, boswellic acids, lupeolic acids and tirucallic acids may change during pyrolysis or burial because of different degradation kinetics.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“However, comparison of their mass spectra with those of isolated incensol [47] and serratol [48] reveals that compound 127 was correctly identified as incensol but that compound 128 corresponds to serratol, a diterpenoid common to Boswellia species, particularly B. sacra, B. carterii and B. serrata [46], [48], [49].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] A Moussaieff, 2007, Incensole acetate, a novel anti-inflammatory compound isolated from Boswellia resin, inhibits nuclear factor-kappa B activation, Molecular Pharmacology source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] TJ Schmidt, 2011, Complete Structural Assignment of Serratol, a Cembrane-Type Diterpene from Boswellia serrata, and Evaluation of Its Antiprotozoal Activity, Planta Medica source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Paul M (2012) Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively Boswellia carterii [dissertation]. Saarland University, Saarbrücken. source
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In the paper
“Incensol and serratol are not fully derivatized (Figure 2) and the free alcohols show almost full coelution (retention indices 2150 and 2152, respectively).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“The latter include tetracyclic hydrocarbons, e.g. des-A-ursa-5(10),12-diene, des-A-26,27-dinorursa-5,7,9,11,13-pentaene and 1,9-dimethylchrysene, as well as pentacyclic hydrocarbons, e.g. 24,25-dinorursa-1,3,5(10),12-tetraene, 24,25,26,27-tetranorursa-1,3,5(10),6,8,10,13-heptaene, 1,2,9-trimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropicene, 2,9-dimethylpicene.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“The absorbed residues from samples R2 and R9 contain only trace amounts of triterpenoids such as 24-norursa-3,12-diene, 24-norursa-3,12-dien-11-one, α-amyrenone and corresponding oleanane compounds. No other molecule classes are present.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“We were able to successfully resolve these co-eluting compounds by mass spectral deconvolution, with the summed peak areas of the extracted compound chromatograms (ECCs) amounting to 95% of the peak area of the total ion count chromatogram (Figure 3).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“It amounts to 1 for B. serrata and 4–7 in B. sacra, B. carterii and B. papyrifera.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“Chemotaxonomic screening of the lipid extracts has provided unambiguous proof for frankincense, viz. the oleo-gum resin of Boswellia sp., but also revealed that the chemical signatures were greatly altered and differed almost completely from those of fresh frankincense (cf. Figure 2).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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In the paper
“Original cembrane alcohols, tirucallic acids, boswellic and lupeolic acids were only recovered in trace amounts. Instead, 24-nortriterpenoids, amyrin derivatives and Δ2-triterpenoids were identified as major compounds.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“Most abundant are palmitic acid (C16∶0) and stearic acid (C18∶0) exhibiting absolute concentrations of 3.5 µg g−1 and 3.0 µg g−1, respectively.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“In addition, the chromatogram displays trace amounts of 16-nordehydroabietic acid, 16,17-bisnordehydroabietic acid, 7-oxo-18-norabieta-8,11,13-triene, 15,16,17-trisnordehydroabietic acid, simonellite, 5α- and 5β-9,10-secodehydroabietic acid as well as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as phenanthrene, methylphenanthrenes, pimanthrene, 7-ethyl-1-methylphenanthrene, methylcyclopentenophen”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“A total of 1854 charcoal fragments has been identified from the content of the different funerary pots, resulting in a minimum number of 11 identified taxa (Table 3).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“The lipid profile of the absorbed residues is almost identical to that of the surface residue, except for small peaks of coprostanol, epicoprostanol, cholesterol and sitosterol which are only detected in the surface residue.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Diterpenoid profiles of the commercial Boswellia resins are dominated by incensol and serratol in B. carterii (61% and 24% of total identified diterpenoids, respectively), by serratol in B. sacra (63%) and B. serrata (76%), and by verticilla-4(20),7,11-triene, incensol and incensol acetate in B. papyrifera (24%, 25% and 43%, respectively).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“Contrary to the triterpenoid predominance in most samples, the lipid composition of samples Q10 and N13 was dominated by diterpenoids and aliphatic lipids, respectively.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Other minor constituents of frankincense are also present, mostly in trace abundances (0.1–0.3 µg g−1). These include lupeolic acid (sample R9), its Δ2 derivative (sample Q11), tirucallic acids (samples R9 and Q11) and serratol and incensol (samples Q11, L14 and L15).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Their deconvoluted mass spectra (Figure 4a and 4b) are nearly identical and show clear features of a boswellic acid derivative, viz. ions with m/z 73, 175, 203, 218 and 292 [20], [26].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [20] C Mathe, 2004, Characterization of archaeological frankincense by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Chromatogr A source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
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In the paper
“Furthermore, ring A contracted neotriterpenoids (samples R9, Q11, L14 and L15) and polyunsaturated or aromatic hydrocarbons (samples R2, R9, Q11, Q12, L14 and L15) are observed in minor amounts.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“No exotic taxa have been found and none of the identified taxa has specific odoriferous or aromatic characteristics.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
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In the paper
“Tirucallol and tirucallic acids such as β-elemonic acid, β-elemolic acid and β-elemolic acid acetate are also present and their relative abundance is higher in B. serrata and B. papyrifera than in B. sacra and B. carterii.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
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In the paper
“These charred remains include seeds or fragments of seeds from Pisum sativum, unidentified Fabaceae and cereals as well as bone fragments from unidentified mammalian bones and herring vertebrae (Q. Goffette and S. Preiss, personal communication).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
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In the paper
“that they were not only reserved for the elite, for the clergy nor for any other social class (cf. supra)”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“The fact that most perforated vessels are ordinary domestic ceramics and have been pierced after firing suggests that the vessels had an earlier use-phase prior to their use as censers.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
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In the paper
“Inter-species variation in chemical composition was verified by analyzing commercial resins of B. carterii, B. papyrifera, B. sacra and B. serrata. Our results are summarized in Table 2 and correspond well to published data [20], [26], [46].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [20] C Mathe, 2004, Characterization of archaeological frankincense by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Chromatogr A source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Paul M (2012) Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively Boswellia carterii [dissertation]. Saarland University, Saarbrücken. source
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In the paper
“Especially coprostanol and epicoprostanol are biomarkers for faeces from an omnivore [65].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Check pendingcites [65] J Baeten, 2012, Faecal biomarker and archaeobotanical analyses of sediments from a public latrine shed new light on ruralisation in Sagalassos, Turkey, J Archaeol Sci source
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In the paper
“Dehydration reactions may have taken place during mild pyrolysis or during prolonged contact with desiccants such as charcoal.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“These are highly diagnostic for the Cupressaceae (e.g. Tetraclinis, Juniperus, Cupressus) and Podocarpaceae family (e.g. Podocarpus) and also occur in Cedrus atlantica [60].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [60] A Otto, 2001, Sesqui-, Di-, and triterpenoids as chemosystematic markers in extant conifers - A review, Botanical Review source
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The resulting profile is characterized by a relatively high amount of stearyl moieties and small amounts of C15 and C17 fatty acyl moieties, which are characteristic features of ruminant fats.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: All ketones detected in sample N13 arise from acyl lipid pyrolysis.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Amyrins, their acetates and oxidized forms are widespread phytochemicals and are produced by many higher plants [67], including Boswellia sp. [20], [26].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [67] BRT Simoneit, 2002, Biomass burning - A review of organic tracers for smoke from incomplete combustion, Applied Geochemistry source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [20] C Mathe, 2004, Characterization of archaeological frankincense by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Chromatogr A source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The scant grave goods in late medieval burials comprise laterally perforated pottery vessels which are usually filled with charcoal.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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In the paper
“Fortunately, the diagnostic carboxylic acid group on C-24 is preserved which makes these compounds suitable as univocal biomarkers for degraded frankincense.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
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In the paper
“Frankincense, or olibanum, is an oleogum resin that exudes in pale yellow to red tears from incisions in the bark of certain Boswellia trees (Burseraceae family) thriving in arid regions in the horn of Africa and southern Arabia [1].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Langenheim JH (2003) Plant resins. Chemistry, evolution, ecology and ethnobotany. Cambridge: Timber Press. 586 p.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These minor components are not necessarily related to the use-phases of the pots but may have intruded the residues during prolonged contact with soil particles and during transportation in plastic bags, respectively [50], [51].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 2. GC-MS analysis of archaeological residues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] Kimpe K (2003) Chemical analysis of the lipid fraction from ancient ceramics of Sagalassos. [dissertation]. KU Leuven.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] JJ Brocks, 2008, Assessing biomarker syngeneity using branched alkanes with quaternary carbon (BAQCs) and other plastic contaminants, Geochim Cosmochim Ac source
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Neotriterpenoids are formed from amyrins through a Nametkin rearrangement [54] and the Δ9(11),12 double bond constitutes the dehydrated form of Δ12 triterpenoids with an alcohol functionality on C-11 such as 11-hydroxyboswellic acids which are naturally present in frankincense [55].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [54] HL ten Haven, 1992, Delta-2-Triterpenes - Early Intermediates in the Diagenesis of Terrigenous Triterpenoids, Geochim Cosmochim Ac source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] HL ten Haven, 1992, Early Diagenetic Transformation of Higher-Plant Triterpenoids in Deep-Sea Sediments from Baffin-Bay, Geochim Cosmochim Ac source
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In the paper
“Δ2-boswellic and Δ2-lupeolic acids constitute another group of diagnostic compounds, which are identified here for the first time. They were not detected when analyzing the modern reference resins and may be considered as first stage degradation products of boswellic and lupeolic acids, i.e. they are most likely formed by dehydration of the 3α alcohol functionality (Figure 8) as is the case for am”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [54] HL ten Haven, 1992, Delta-2-Triterpenes - Early Intermediates in the Diagenesis of Terrigenous Triterpenoids, Geochim Cosmochim Ac source
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They occur in most regions of western Europe and are interpreted as incense burners but have never been investigated with advanced analytical techniques.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Abstract
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“These types of reactions also act upon abietane and pimarane diterpenoids during pine tar or pitch production (cf. diterpenoid profile of sample Q10; [58], [70]) and during pine wood combustion [71].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] IM Egenberg, 2002, Characterisation of traditionally kiln produced pine tar by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Anal Appl Pyr source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [70] N Robinson, 1987, Proof of A Pine Wood Origin for Pitch from Tudor (Mary Rose) and Etruscan Shipwrecks - Application of Analytical Organic-Chemistry in Archaeology, Analyst source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [71] BRT Simoneit, 2000, Molecular characterization of smoke from campfire burning of pine wood (Pinus elliottii), Chemosphere - Global Change Science source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The ratio of 3-O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid to 11-keto-β-boswellic acid has been proposed as a further species-specific criterium [45], [46].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Results > 1. GC-MS analysis of modern Boswellia resins
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [45] B Buchele, 2003, Analysis of pentacyclic triterpenic acids from frankincense gum resins and related phytopharmaceuticals by high-performance liquid chromatography. Identification of lupeolic acid, a novel pentacyclic triterpene, Journal of Chromatography B-Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Paul M (2012) Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively Boswellia carterii [dissertation]. Saarland University, Saarbrücken. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“By contrast, 24-nortriterpenoids such as Δ3,12-ursadienes and Δ3,9(11),12-ursatrienes are much more specific. They were already identified in Boswellia resin pyrolysates and are produced from boswellic acids and their corresponding acetates (Figure 8). They are formed through a combined decarboxylation and dehydration (resp. deacetoxylation) in which the carboxylic acid at C-24 plays a crucial”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [22] PF van Bergen, 1997, Chemical evidence for archaeological frankincense: Boswellic acids and their derivatives in solvent soluble and insoluble fractions of resin-like materials, Tetrahedron Lett source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Tetracyclic hydrocarbons such as des-A-ursa-5(10),12-diene are formed by a Norrish type cleavage of the A ring [69] and, like pentacyclic oleanane and ursane compounds, may undergo a series of dehydrogenation, demethylation and progressive aromatization reactions to form PAHs such as dimethylchrysene and dimethylpicene (Figure 8) [53].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [69] B Corbet, 1980, Photo-Chemical Or Photo-Mimetic Fossil Triterpenoids in Sediments and Petroleum, Journal of the American Chemical Society source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [53] SA Stout, 1992, Aliphatic and Aromatic Triterpenoid Hydrocarbons in A Tertiary Angiospermous Lignite, Org Geochem source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In contrast, in the 7 pots recovered from a single pit in the central nave of the parish church of Saint-Géry (Rebecq), only charcoal from beech has been found. This might be an indication for intentionally produced charcoal as this is likely to result in a monospecific assemblage [79]–[81].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [79] E Asouti, 2005, Reconstructing Woodland Vegetation and its Exploitation by Past Societies, based on the Analysis and Interpretation of Archaeological Wood Charcoal Macro-Remains, Environmental Archaeology source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [80] K Deforce, 2013, Selective woodland exploitation for charcoal production. A detailed analysis of charcoal kiln remains (ca. 1300–1900 AD) from Zoersel (northern Belgium), J Archaeol Sci source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [81] K Deforce, 2012, Ashes to ashes. Fuelwood selection in Roman cremation rituals in northern Gaul, J Archaeol Sci source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 1571, Pope Pius V allowed that Peru balsam (Myroxylon pereirae) could be used for incense and later in 1606, the Caeremoniale Episcoporum decreed that frankincense should be used in pure grade or, when admixed with other materials, should be the major incense constituent [15].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] Pfeifer M (1997) Der Weihrauch. Geschichte, Bedeutung, Verwendung. Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet. 224 p.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, juniper berries have been commonly used in medieval Europe as a fragrant material [76] and contain totarol as the major diterpenoid constituent [77].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] De Cleene M, Lejeune MC (2002) Compendium of Symbolic and Ritual Plants in Europe: herbs (Vol. 1). Ghent: Man & Culture Publishers. 885 p.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [77] S Vichi, 2008, Assessment of some diterpenoids in commercial distilled gin, Anal Chim Acta source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Almost all perforated pots in this study were recovered from burials within ecclesiastical buildings (Table 1) and thus belonged most likely to clergy members or nobleman [82].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [82] Prigent D (1996) Les céramiques funéraires (XIe-XVIIe siècle). In: Galinié H, Zadora-Rio E, editors. Archéologie du cimetière chrétien. Actes du 2e colloque A.R.C.H.E.A. Tours. pp. 215–224.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“that the vessels are indeed of inferior value as more elaborate wares of higher quality (other techniques, typology, etc.) have been made in this period”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“At mild pyrolytic conditions, viz. temperatures between 100–200°C, abietic acid dehydrogenates to its more stable and monoaromatic derivative dehydroabietic acid [58].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] IM Egenberg, 2002, Characterisation of traditionally kiln produced pine tar by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, J Anal Appl Pyr source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Furthermore, diterpenoids have been found to be resistant to chemical changes in pyrolysis experiments [26] and were recovered in traces amounts in samples Q11, L14 and L15.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [26] Basar S (2005) Phytochemical investigations on Boswellia species [dissertation]. University of Hamburg.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Further thermal treatment of the tars at temperatures above 300°C initiates decarboxylation, dealkylation and aromatization reactions, which generate partially and fully aromatic hydrocarbons such as retene and pimanthrene [71]–[73].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [71] BRT Simoneit, 2000, Molecular characterization of smoke from campfire burning of pine wood (Pinus elliottii), Chemosphere - Global Change Science source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [72] M Keiluweit, 2012, Solvent-Extractable Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Biochar: Influence of Pyrolysis Temperature and Feedstock, Environmental Science & Technology source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [73] J Connan, 2003, Conifer tar on the keel and hull planking of the Ma’agan Mikhael Ship (Israel, 5th century BC): identification and comparison withnatural products and artefacts employed in boat construction, J Archaeol Sci source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With the Christianization of Europe, the tradition of grave gifts, particularly in its northwestern regions, was gradually abandoned with a total disappearance by the 8th century.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Medieval funerary ceramics in northwestern Europe are generally interpreted as incense burners, and in some rare cases as containers for holy water, based on their appearance in historical manuscripts, e.g. Durandus’ Rationale Divinorum Officiorum, and iconographic sources, e.g. miniatures from the Book of Hours (Figure S2) [30], [32].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [30] Gilchrist R, Sloane B (2005) Requiem: the medieval monastic cemetery in Britain. Museum of London Archaeology Service. 273 p.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [32] PK Madsen, 1983, A French connection: Danish funerary pots - a group of Medieval pottery, Journal of Danish Archaeology source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Podocarpaceae and Cedrus Atlantica are unlikely sources as these conifers are native to the southern hemisphere and the Atlas mountains in Morocco and Algeria, respectively.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Pine tar and pitch have been widely used to coat ceramics to make them impermeable for liquids such as wine, oils or garum [91], with the earliest evidence dating back to the 7th century BC [70].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [91] K Romanus, 2009, Wine and olive oil permeation in pitched and non-pitched ceramics: relation with results from archaeological amphorae from Sagalassos, Turkey, J Archaeol Sci source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [70] N Robinson, 1987, Proof of A Pine Wood Origin for Pitch from Tudor (Mary Rose) and Etruscan Shipwrecks - Application of Analytical Organic-Chemistry in Archaeology, Analyst source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to the deconvoluted diterpenoid profiles in the commercial resins, the dominance of serratol in the archaeological samples corresponds to B. sacra or B. serrata and thus excludes B. papyrifera and B. carterii.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The vessel from Namur (N13), however, lacks clear evidence for incense burning, which possibly indicates that the vessel was pierced to adapt it for use in funerary rituals but has never been actually used for that purpose.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, pine pitch continued to be used as a waterproofing material which is evidenced by analyses of contemporary naval timbers like that of the Mary Rose, the flagship of king Henry VIII [70], [94], and the Bremer Kogge [95].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [70] N Robinson, 1987, Proof of A Pine Wood Origin for Pitch from Tudor (Mary Rose) and Etruscan Shipwrecks - Application of Analytical Organic-Chemistry in Archaeology, Analyst source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [94] RP Evershed, 1985, Pine Wood Origin for Pitch from the Mary-Rose, Nature source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [95] W Lange, 1983, Die Untersuchung eines mittelalterlichen Holzteers aus dem Fund der Bremer Kogge, Berliner Beiträge zur Archäometrie
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Absorbed residues from vessels R2 and R9 did not contain lipids which could be related to a vessel use other than incense burning, although markers for pine tar in the corresponding surface residues might relate to an earlier use associated with liquid handling or storage.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The organic remains from the studied pots from Rebecq, Quaregnon and Liège show not only univocal evidence for burned frankincense (except for sample Q10); some of the vessels also contain potential evidences that frankincense was not used in a pure grade but has been admixed with other scents such as juniper and possibly pine tar.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Today, incense in the catholic church is composed of various ingredients including frankincense, myrrh, styrax, storax, sandalwood, cloves and lavender (cf.www.threekingsproducts.com) [2].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [2] AO Tucker, 1986, Frankincense and Myrrh, Economic Botany source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“From the Cupressaceae family, juniper (Juniperus communis L.) is the only species that occurred in Belgium during the middle ages although it was probably rare in the study area as it prefers poor, sandy soils like the coastal dunes and the Campine region.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 1. Chemistry of burned incense remnants
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The scant literary evidences of incense mixtures date from later periods but let believe that diluting frankincense has indeed been common practice for some time, whether it was officially allowed or not.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Frankincense was expensive and cutting it with more commonly available scents such as flowers, herbs and fragrant woods would have lowered the price.
In the paper
“Moreover, there are evidences of late medieval pitch production sites like that of Ruppersdorf in Germany [96].”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [96] RD Bleck, 1967, Des Pech von Ruppersdorf, Alt-Thüringen
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Funerary ceramics were common in Roman tombs and were used as a container of cremated remains or food offerings.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any event, the appearance of funerary incense pots from the 11–12th century onwards indicates a growing concern about a person’s fate, a life after death, and how the latter may be improved.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 3. Vessel recycling
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, perforated pots can also be found in outdoor burials, sometimes in graves without a coffin, suggesting that the pots were not only reserved for the elite.”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The presence of heated ruminant fats in this sample is clearly not consistent with an incense-related function but rather suggests that the vessel has been used for preparing foods (see below).”
§ Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners > Discussion > 2. Function of funerary vessels
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The perforated funerary pots have not been investigated with advanced analytical techniques.
“They occur in most regions of western Europe and are interpreted as incense burners but have never been investigated with advanced analytical techniques.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The chemical composition of modern commercial Boswellia resins is representative of the ancient frankincense used in the archaeological pots.
“Commercial resins from four Boswellia species were analysed for comparison and to verify species-specific criteria.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The species-specific chemical markers used to identify Boswellia species survive degradation and burning in archaeological residues.
“Cembrane-type diterpenoids indicate B. sacra (southern Arabia) and B. serrata (India) as possible botanical origins.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
All ketones detected in sample N13 arise from acyl lipid pyrolysis.
“Assuming that all ketones arise from acyl lipid pyrolysis, the original acyl distribution can be reconstructed by mass spectral deconvolution (Figure 7).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Frankincense was expensive and cutting it with more commonly available scents such as flowers, herbs and fragrant woods would have lowered the price.
“Despite a general emphasis on both spiritual and material purity in this period, frankincense was expensive and cutting with more commonly available scents such as flowers, herbs and fragrant woods would have lowered the price.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Few chemical analyses have been performed on remnants of incense ritual.
“Yet, few chemical analyses have been performed on remnants of this widespread ritual, which in part may be due to the misconception that incense is a fairly volatile substance leaving no traces after burning.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The perforated pots from southern Belgium have not been investigated in depth by advanced scientific techniques.
“also constitute an intriguing find category which, despite its widespread occurrence in western Europe, has not been investigated in depth by advanced scientific techniques.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Frankincense contains a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record.
“Nevertheless, certain resins such as frankincense contain a substantial amount of non-volatile components which are well preserved in the archaeological record.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Study-site count conflicts with Table 1
MinorThe materials section says the 26 selected pots came from four sites, but Table 1 lists pots from five: Rebecq, Quaregnon, Namur, Liège and Huy.
“26 pots from 4 different sites have been selected for this study”
“Burial locations: Rebecq = parish church of Saint-Géry, Quaregnon = parish church of Saint-Quentin, Namur = Place Maurice Servais, Liège = western cloister of the Notre-Dame-et-Saint-Lambert cathedral, Huy = parish church of Saint-Hilaire.”
Q10 pine tar is described as both trace and abundant
MinorThe discussion includes Q10 among samples with traces of pine tar, whereas Table 4 marks its Pinaceae tar signature as +++, rather than tr.
“samples R2, R9, Q10, L14 and L15 displayed traces of pine tar.”
“| Pinaceae tar | dehydroabietic acid, retene, etc. | tr | tr | +++ | | | tr | tr |”
Citations
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 13
- Gauthier C (2008) L’encens dans la liturgie chrétienne du haut Moyen Âge occidentale. In: Verbanck-Piérard A, Massar N, Frère D, editors. Parfums de l’antiquité. La rose et l’encens en Méditerranée. Musée royal de Mariemont, Belgium. pp. 343–349.
- Lallemand A (2008) L’encens et le christianisme du Ier au IVe siècle après J.-C. In: Verbanck-Piérard A, Massar N, Frère D, editors. Parfums de l’antiquité. La rose et l’encense en Méditerranée. Musée Royal de Mariemont, Belgium. pp. 335–342.
- Sedov A (2007) The port of Qana’ and the incense trade. In: Peacock D, Williams D, editors. Food for the Gods. New light on the ancient incense trade. Oxford: Oxbow books. pp. 71–111.
- Allios D (2013) Interprétation et surinterprétation des céramiques médiévales trouvées en contextes funéraires et religieux. Approches historiques et archéologiques. In: Villette M, editors. La céramique dans les contextes rituels. Fouiller et comprendre les gestes des anciens. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes. pp. 189–195.
- D Bosquet, 2014, Rebecq: fouilles sur la Grand-Place à l’emplacement de l’église Saint-Géry, Chronique de l’Archéologie Wallonne, 21, 15
- M Denis, 2010, Regards sur l’établissement médiéval de Quaregnon (Ht). Bilan des campagnes 2008–2009, Archaeologica Mediaevalis, 33, 55
- R Vanmechelen, 2010, Namur: archéologie préventive sous la place Maurice Servais. De la fondation augustéenne à la disparition de la rue du Four, Chronique de l’Archéologie Wallonne, 17, 198
- C Péters, 2013, Huy: archéologie et assainissement. Partenariat improbable rue Saint-Hilaire, Chronique de l’Archéologie Wallonne, 20, 160
- Paul M (2012) Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively Boswellia carterii [dissertation]. Saarland University, Saarbrücken.
- Kimpe K (2003) Chemical analysis of the lipid fraction from ancient ceramics of Sagalassos. [dissertation]. KU Leuven.
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- RD Bleck, 1967, Des Pech von Ruppersdorf, Alt-Thüringen, 9, 204
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Exploring the Influence of Domain Architecture on the Catalytic Function of Diterpene Synthases
Pemberton, T. A., Chen, M., Harris, G. G., Chou, W. K. W., Duan, L., Köksal, M., Genshaft, A. S., Cane, D. E., & Christianson, D. W. (2017) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00137 · Cited by 76
From the inside out: Upscaling organic residue analyses of archaeological ceramics
Roffet-Salque, M., Dunne, J., Altoft, D. T., Casanova, E., Cramp, L. J. E., Smyth, J., Whelton, H. L., & Evershed, R. P. (2017) · Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.04.005 · Cited by 70
Lipid Residues from Low‐Fired Pottery
Reber, E. A., Kerr, M. T., Whelton, H. L., & Evershed, R. P. (2018) · Archaeometry · doi:10.1111/arcm.12403 · Cited by 68
Cannabis and Frankincense at the Judahite Shrine of Arad
Arie, E., Rosen, B., & Namdar, D. (2020) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1080/03344355.2020.1732046 · Cited by 64
Tambe, A. S., & Pandita, N. S. (2017) · Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2017.11.025 · Cited by 37
Metadata
- Authors
- Baeten, J., Deforce, K., Challe, S., De Vos, D., & Degryse, P.
- Affiliations
- KU Leuven (BE)
- Institute of Natural Sciences (BE)
- Service Public de Wallonie (BE)
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-11-12
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- e113142
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4229304
- OpenAlex
- W2156857395
- Cited by
- 43
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 13.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- KU Leuven
- Service Public de Wallonie
- Vlaamse regering
- Koninklijk Belgisch Instituut voor Natuurwetenschappen
- Bijzonder Onderzoeksfonds UGent
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Viking Age and Medieval Scandinavia
- Keywords
- frankincense, Boswellia, incense burners, funerary practices, medieval burials, Boswellia sacra, Boswellia serrata, triterpenoids, boswellic acids, cembrane diterpenoids, juniper, pine tar, charcoal, Wallonia
- MeSH terms
- Belgium, Charcoal, Funeral Rites, Plant Extracts, Resins, Plant, Smoke, Triterpenes, Boswellia, History, Medieval, Frankincense
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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