Cited by 744Education during COVID-19 pandemicEducational Outcomes and InfluencesE-Learning and COVID-19

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Influence of COVID-19 confinement on students’ performance in higher education

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Gonzalez, T., de la Rubia, M. A., Hincz, K. P., Comas-Lopez, M., Subirats, Laia, Fort, Santi, Sacha, G. M.·2020·PLOS ONE

DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239490PMC PMC7546684

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Abstract

This study analyzes the effects of COVID-19 confinement on the autonomous learning performance of students in higher education. Using a field experiment with 458 students from three different subjects at Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (Spain), we study the differences in assessments by dividing students into two groups. The first group (control) corresponds to academic years 2017/2018 and 2018/2019. The second group (experimental) corresponds to students from 2019/2020, which is the group of students that had their face-to-face activities interrupted because of the confinement. The results show that there is a significant positive effect of the COVID-19 confinement on students' performance. This effect is also significant in activities that did not change their format when performed after the confinement. We find that this effect is significant both in subjects that increased the number of assessment activities and subjects that did not change the student workload. Additionally, an analysis of students' learning strategies before confinement shows that students did not study on a continuous basis. Based on these results, we conclude that COVID-19 confinement changed students' learning strategies to a more continuous habit, improving their efficiency. For these reasons, better scores in students' assessment are expected due to COVID-19 confinement that can be explained by an improvement in their learning performance.

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Fig 1 Representation of the CAT model. Green arrows indicate the path students take when they answer a question correctly. Students follow red arrows when an incorrect answer is given. Grades are represented at the bottom of the figure, improving with each step to the right.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 2 Scheme of the strategy followed to accurately measure the autonomous work of students and the influence of rewards.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 3 Description of the experiment.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 4 Distribution of self-evaluation activities in “Applied Computing”. (a) Individual scores of all the students in the academic year 2017/2018 (ordered chronologically). Each dot corresponds to a single attempt of a student. (b) Number of attempts in the academic year 2017/2018 distributed in time periods. Inset shows the distribution in the days between May 16 and May 21.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 5 Distribution of attempts in the self-evaluation/learning phase in “Design of Water Treatment Facilities”. The horizontal axis corresponds to the dates and the vertical axis to the grades obtained in every individual attempt. The attempts made by all students in the 3 stages are presented.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 6 Attempts vs. scores ordered chronologically for the three academic years under study in “Applied Computing”.CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 7 Students’ scores in the face-to-face period (before confinement) and in the distance teaching period (during confinement). Data is presented for the 3 academic courses (2017/2018 and 2018/2019 being the control group and 2019/2020 the experimental group) as mean±SD. Symbols indicate statistically significant differences (p<0.05) between course 2019/2020 and 2017/2018 (*), 2019/2020 and 2018/2019 (#) or between the period before and after the confinement during the same course (¶).CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig 8 Results of students enrolled in Metabolism during the last 3 academic years. (a) The score obtained by students in the different activities of the continuous assessment is represented. (b) Proportion of students that passed the continuous assessment activities (score≥5). (c) Proportion of students that did not carry out the continuous assessment activities. From the 11 activities, only 2 are in-person activities under normal conditions (number 5 and 9, highlighted with a box), the other activities were always on-line. The end of in-person teaching and beginning of confinement is indicated with a red arrow. Data is presented as mean±SD. Symbols indicate statistically significant differences (p<0.05) between courses 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 (§), 2017/2018 and 2019/2020 (*) and 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 (#).CC BY · PubMed Central

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Natarajan, J., & Joseph, M. A. (2021) · Nursing Forum · doi:10.1111/nuf.12649 · Cited by 60
“Studies have shown that when technology is used in an effective way, it will enable students and faculty to have better engagement and collaboration.(10) However, nursing students’ engagement in online learning might differ from that of ERT.”
Background
“Messy transitions”: Students’ perspectives on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education
Sharaievska, I., McAnirlin, O., Browning, M. H. E. M., Larson, L. R., Mullenbach, L. E., Rigolon, A., D’Antonio, A., Cloutier, S. A., Thomsen, J. M., Metcalf, E. C., et al. (2022) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-022-00843-7 · Cited by 61
“Similarly, a study by Gonzalez et al. (2020) posited that some students’ academic performance improved during the pandemic as a result of changes in learning strategies and formation of new habits.”
Impact of COVID-19 on the Educational Process in Saudi Arabia: A Technology–Organization–Environment Framework
Alshaikh, K., Maasher, S. Y., Bayazed, A., Saleem, F., Badri, S. K., & Fakieh, B. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13137103 · Cited by 56
“It provides the student more time to review subjects and work on the projects and assignments required, which helps to improve the student’s academic performance; the research in [34] also found similar results.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
COVID-19 Lockdown-Related Changes in Mood, Health and Academic Functioning
Hendriksen, P. A., Garssen, J., Bijlsma, E. Y., Engels, F., Bruce, G., & Verster, J. C. (2021) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe11040103 · Cited by 48
“This effect was not only seen for courses that changed to an online format but also for teaching activities that continued in a face-to-face format [22].”
Background
Remote Teaching Due to COVID-19: An Exploration of Its Effectiveness and Issues
Kawasaki, H., Yamasaki, S., Masuoka, Y., Iwasa, M., Fukita, S., & Matsuyama, R. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052672 · Cited by 53
Perceptions, satisfactions, and performance of undergraduate students during Covid‐19 emergency remote teaching
Wilhelm, J., Mattingly, S. G., & González, V. H. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2161 · Cited by 51
Difference in the Attitude of Students and Employees of the University of Ljubljana towards Work from Home and Online Education: Lessons from COVID-19 Pandemic
Drašler, V., Bertoncelj, J., Korošec, M., Žontar, T. P., Ulrih, N. P., & Cigić, B. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13095118 · Cited by 44
Undergraduate Biology Students Received Higher Grades During COVID-19 but Perceived Negative Effects on Learning
Supriya, K., Mead, C., Anbar, A. D., Caulkins, J. L., Collins, J. P., Cooper, K. M., LePore, P. C., Lewis, T., Pate, A., Scott, R. A., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.759624 · Cited by 56
“The slight increase in average student grades in Spring 2020 compared to previous semesters is consistent with other studies that have examined student grades in Spring 2020 at other institutions (Gonzalez et al., 2020; Loton et al., 2020; Bawa, 2021).”
Result
Exploring Coping Strategies of Different Generations of Students Starting University
Takács, R., Takács, S., Kárász, J. T., Horváth, Z., & Oláh, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740569 · Cited by 42
A Scoping Review of Organizational Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Schools: A Complex Systems Perspective
Khanal, P., Bento, F., & Tagliabue, M. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11030115 · Cited by 41
“While this area of inquiry reaches beyond the aims of the present work, we hypothesize that there may be implications in terms of the effectiveness and the efficiency of pupils’ learning performance and of teachers’ teaching performance (see also [54,55]).”
Background
Student vulnerabilities and confidence in learning in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic
Bartolic, S. K., Matzat, U., Tai, J., Burgess, J.-L., Boud, D. J., Craig, H., Archibald, A., Jaeger, A. D., Kaplan‐Rakowski, R., Lutze-Mann, L. H., et al. (2022) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2022.2081679 · Cited by 48
“We understand learning confidence as akin to ‘self- efficacy,’ a factor well known to affect learning processes and stimulate academic performance (Galla et al. 2014; Panadero, Jonsson, and Botella 2017; see also Gonzalez et al. 2020).”
Background
Online Learning and COVID-19 in Higher Education: The Value of IT Models in Assessing Students’ Satisfaction
Azizan, S. N., Lee, A., Crosling, G., Atherton, G., Arulanandam, B. V., Lee, C. E., & Rahim, R. B. A. (2022) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v17i03.24871 · Cited by 39
Recent advances in fluorinated superhydrophobic materials: Preparation and diverse applications
Yang, Q., Li, X., Xue, Y., Peng, H., Bai, Y., Li, W., & Zheng, W. (2025) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2025.168236 · Cited by 39
The configurational effects of task-technology fit, technology-induced engagement and motivation on learning performance during Covid-19 pandemic: An fsQCA approach
Elçi, A., & Abubakar, A. M. (2021) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10580-6 · Cited by 45
The impact of the universities closure on physical activity and academic performance in physical education in university students during the COVID-19 pandemic
Osipov, A. Y., Ratmanskaya, T. I., Zemba, E. A., Potop, V., Kudryavtsev, M. D., & Nagovitsyn, R. S. (2021) · Physical Education of Students · doi:10.15561/20755279.2021.0103 · Cited by 38
“For this reason, better scores in students’ assessment are expected due to COVID-19 confinement that can be explained by an improvement in their academic performance [29].”
Background
Social identity loss and reverse culture shock: Experiences of international students in China during the COVID-19 pandemic
Raja, R., Jian-fu, M., Zhang, M., Li, X. Y., Almutairi, N. S., & Almutairi, A. H. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994411 · Cited by 43
“Higher education institutes have experienced substantial challenges such as switching to online lectures/tutorials, closing libraries, changing contact channels for instructors and administrative support, new evaluation methods, varying workloads and performance levels (Bezerra, 2020; Cao et al., 2020; Gallego et al.,…”
Background
The effect of implementing mind maps for online learning and assessment on students during COVID-19 pandemic: a cross sectional study
Alsuraihi, A. A. (2022) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-022-03211-2 · Cited by 36
“Moreover, another study by Gonzalez et al. [46] conducted on Spanish university students showed a significant improvement in students’ performance during the COVID-19 pandemic, despite the teaching model changes.”
Background
Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on medical students in Jordanian universities: A multi-center cross-sectional study
Al-Husban, N. A., Alkhayat, A., Aljweesri, M., Alharbi, R., Aljazzaf, Z., Al-Husban, N., Muhtaseb, M. S. E., Oweidat, K. A., & Obeidat, N. A. (2021) · Annals of Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.amsu.2021.102466 · Cited by 35
“On the other hand, in October 2020, a field experiment of 458 students at Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (Spain) showed that COVID19 confinement changed students’ learning strategies to a more continuous habit, improving their efficiency, and better scores in students’ assessment are expected due to COVID-19 confineme…”
E-learning challenge studying the COVID-19 pandemic
Kamysbayeva, A., Koryakov, A., Garnova, N., Glushkov, S., & Klimenkova, S. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/ijem-06-2021-0257 · Cited by 35
Embodied teacher identity: a qualitative study on ‘practical sense’ as a basic pedagogical condition in times of Covid-19
Christensen, M. K., Nielsen, K.-J. S., & O’Neill, L. D. (2022) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-022-10102-0 · Cited by 38
“Even so, studies on the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic have largely and understandably focused on students’ learning and well-being (Asbury et al., 2020; Aucejo et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2020; Colao et al., 2020; Gonzalez et al., 2020; Kim & Asbury, 2020; Son et al., 2020).”
Background
Assessment practices in Saudi higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic
Almossa, S. Y., & Alzahrani, S. M. (2022) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-021-01025-z · Cited by 35
“Several studies have been conducted to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the experiences of students and faculty members in higher education (Al-Mohair and Alwahaishi, 2020; Almossa, 2021; Aristovnik et al., 2020; Bisht et al., 2020; Gonzalez et al., 2020; Sasere and Makhasane, 2020).”
Background
Learners’ Satisfaction and Commitment Towards Online Learning During COVID-19: A Concept Paper
Ranadewa, D. U. N., Gregory, T. Y., Boralugoda, D. N., Silva, J. A. H. T., & Jayasuriya, N. (2021) · Vision The Journal of Business Perspective · doi:10.1177/09722629211056705 · Cited by 34
“Worldwide, a sudden increase in the introduction of new online learning platforms occurred, facilitating students to attend lectures during the COVID-19 pandemic (Gonzalez et al., 2020).”
Background
Analyzing students’ e-learning usage and post-usage outcomes in higher education
Ullah, M. S., Hoque, M. R., Aziz, M. A., & Islam, M. (2023) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100146 · Cited by 45
Teaching and learning under COVID-19 public health edicts: the role of household lockdowns and prior technology usage
Guppy, N., Boud, D. J., Heap, T., Verpoorten, D., Matzat, U., Tai, J., Lutze-Mann, L. H., Roth, M., Polly, P., Burgess, J.-L., et al. (2021) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-021-00781-w · Cited by 36
Why Did Students Report Lower Test Anxiety during the COVID-19 Pandemic?
Ewell, S. N., Josefson, C. C., & Ballen, C. J. (2022) · Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education · doi:10.1128/jmbe.00282-21 · Cited by 40
“However, despite these difficulties, some students experienced increases in academic performance (37, 38).”
Background
Acceptance of online distance learning (ODL) among students: Mediating role of utilitarian and hedonic value
Alam, S. S., Masukujjaman, M., Ahmad, M. G., & Jaffor, R. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11533-3 · Cited by 40
“COVID-19 students performed better than students from the prior year, according to Gonzalez et al. (2020).”
Background
How COVID-19 impacted soft skills development: The views of software engineering students
Brennan, A., Dempsey, M., McAvoy, J., O’Dea, M., O’Leary, S., & Prendergast, M. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2171621 · Cited by 33
“Using a combination of video streaming and virtual classrooms for synchronous and asynchronous delivery (Gonzalez et al., 2020), this rapid transition to online learning forced many HEIs to re-strategize (Shiohira & Keevy, 2020) and drove many academics into “unfamiliar terrain” as they made…”
Background
Digital Innovation in Times of Emergency: Reactions from a School of Management in Italy
Agasisti, T., Frattini, F., & Soncin, M. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su122410312 · Cited by 42
“The current emergency, in particular, has put at the centre the open issue of the effectiveness of digital technologies for education, fuelling the debate on the topic [4,13].”
Background
Dental Students in Germany throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Psychological Assessment and Cross-Sectional Survey
Mekhemar, M. K., Attia, S., Dörfer, C. E., & Conrad, J. (2021) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology10070611 · Cited by 37
Learning features and accessibility limitations of video conferencing applications: are people with visual impairment left behind
Doush, I. A., Al-Jarrah, A., Alajarmeh, N. S., & Alnfiai, M. M. (2022) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-022-00917-4 · Cited by 36
“[47] collects responses from teachers and students about online learning in Pakistani institutions after they switched to distance learning because of the COVID-19 pandemic.”
BackgroundInfluential
Changes in university students’ behavioral intention to learn online throughout the COVID-19: Insights for online teaching in the post-pandemic era
Zhu, Y., Geng, G. H., Disney, L., & Pan, Z. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11320-0 · Cited by 43
“…(Adnan & Anwar, 2020; Baber, 2021; McPartlan et al., 2021) • students’ course satisfaction (Saxena et al., 2020) • students’ online learning outcomes (Adnan & Anwar, 2020; Gonzalez et al., 2020) • students’ online learning attitude or intention (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020; Baber, 2021; George,…”
Thematic learning during the pandemic: CIPP evaluation study
Pujiastuti, P., Herwin, H., & Firdaus, F. M. (2021) · Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences · doi:10.18844/cjes.v16i6.6481 · Cited by 31
The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education students in New Zealand
Cameron, M. P., Fogarty-Perry, B., & Piercy, G. L. (2022) · Journal of Open Flexible and Distance Learning · doi:10.61468/jofdl.v26i1.515 · Cited by 31
Using Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy as a framework to evaluate webcast learning experience in the context of Covid-19 pandemic
Ögeyik, M. C. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11064-x · Cited by 31
“The findings of another study conducted by González et al. (2020) displayed that distance education has positively affected student success thanks to new learning methodologies.”
Result
Impacts of Emergency Remote Teaching on College Students Amid COVID-19 in the UAE
El-Sakran, A., Salman, R., & Alzaatreh, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19052979 · Cited by 39
“Although these dimensions were commonly used to determine the success of standard online learning environments, recent studies identified their value in evaluating ERT during COVID-19 [53].”
Background
The mediating role of students' ability to adapt to online activities on the relationship between perceived university culture and academic performance
Dima, A. M., Bușu, M., & Vargas, V. M. (2022) · Oeconomia Copernicana · doi:10.24136/oc.2022.036 · Cited by 30
Online learning and blended learning: new practices derived from the pandemic-driven disruption
Cheung, S. K. S., Wang, F. L., & Kwok, L. F. (2023) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-023-09350-9 · Cited by 30
“Students’ learning styles and behaviours were changed, such as on learning strategy and study planning (Gonzalez, et al., 2020), learning engagement (El-Sayad, et al., 2021), learning motivation (Jereb, et al., 2022), learning anxiety (Arribathi et al., 2021), and use of open online resources…”
Background
Distance learning perceptions during the coronavirus outbreak: Freshmen versus more advanced students
Baruth, O., Gabbay, H., Cohen, A., Bronshtein, A., & Ezra, O. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12612 · Cited by 34
College students’ self-regulation in asynchronous online courses during COVID-19
Han, J., DiGiacomo, D. K., & Usher, E. L. (2023) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2023.2201608 · Cited by 32
“In March 2020, the United States experienced the onset of a global pandemic caused by the COVID19 virus, which led to immediate and lasting changes to postsecondary learning environments.”
BackgroundInfluential
Academic Performance during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Relationship with Demographic Factors and Alcohol Consumption in College Students
Vargas-Ramos, J. C., Lerma, C., Saldaña, R. M. E. G., Lerma, A., Bosques-Brugada, L. E., & Fragoso, C. G. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19010365 · Cited by 29
“Theoretically, this student perception and attitude can affect negatively the academic performance [3,4,6]; nevertheless, not all the students show a decrease in their academic performance, and some even seem to benefit from this modality [24].”
Background
Planificación, comunicación y metodologías activas: Evaluación online de la asignatura ingeniería de software durante la crisis del COVID-19
García‐Peñalvo, F. J., García-Holgado, A., Vázquez‐Ingelmo, A., & Sánchez‐Prieto, J. C. (2021) · RIED Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia · doi:10.5944/ried.24.2.27689 · Cited by 28
Measuring the Impact of COVID-19 Induced Campus Closure on Student Self-Regulated Learning in Physics Online Learning Modules
Zhang, T., Taub, M., & Chen, Z. (2021) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3448139.3448150 · Cited by 28

Authors: Gonzalez, T., de la Rubia, M. A., Hincz, K. P., Comas-Lopez, M., Subirats, L., Fort, S., & Sacha, G. M.
Affiliations: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (ES)
Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (ES)
EURECAT Centre Tecnològic de Catalunya (ES)
Corresponding author: Sacha, G. M.
ORCID: Subirats, Laia
Fort, Santi
Sacha, G. M.
Venue: PLOS ONE
Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published: 2020-10-09
Volume: 15
Issue: 10
Pages: e0239490
ISSN: 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239490
PMC: PMC7546684
OpenAlex: W3091995338
Cited by: 743
References: 45
Citations by year: 2026: 23 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 142 · 2022: 203 · 2021: 230 · 2020: 22
FWCI: 226.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Hispana (submittedVersion)
Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
Funders: Erasmus+ Program (2017-1-ES01-KA203-038266)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
Social Sciences › Education › E-Learning and COVID-19
Keywords: COVID-19 lockdown, university students, student performance, self-directed learning, learning strategies, assessment performance, student workload, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
MeSH terms: Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Educational Measurement, Female, Humans, Male, Models, Theoretical, Pneumonia, Viral, Spain, Students, Medical, Coronavirus Infections, Education, Distance, Young Adult, Pandemics

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Influence of COVID-19 confinement on students’ performance in higher education

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