The human glucocorticoid receptor: molecular basis of biologic function
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The characterization of the subfamily of steroid hormone receptors has enhanced our understanding of how a set of hormonally derived lipophilic ligands controls cellular and molecular functions to influence development and help achieve homeostasis. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR), the first member of this subfamily, is a ubiquitously expressed intracellular protein, which functions as a ligand-dependent transcription factor that regulates the expression of glucocorticoid-responsive genes. The effector domains of the GR mediate transcriptional activation by recruiting coregulatory multi-subunit complexes that remodel chromatin, target initiation sites, and stabilize the RNA-polymerase II machinery for repeated rounds of transcription of target genes. This review summarizes the basic aspects of the structure and actions of the human (h) GR, and the molecular basis of its biologic functions.
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The non-liganded GR-α is sequestered in the cytoplasm by a multiprotein chaperone complex; ligand binding causes conformational change, chaperone dissociation, nuclear localization signal unmasking, and nuclear translocation where it modulates gene expression.
“The non-liganded GR-α is sequestered in the cytoplasm by a multiprotein complex that may be composed of heat-shock protein (HSP) 90, 70, 56, or 40, as well as co-chaperones p23, p60, Src kinase, and immunophilins FKBP51, 52 (22, 75, 79). These cytoplasmic chaperones conceal the nuclear localization signal (NLS) of the steroid receptor and thereby preclude its shuttling to the nucleus. Importantly,”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [75]
GR-β permanently resides in the nucleus and acts as a dominant negative inhibitor of GR-α; its relative abundance, normally 1% of GR-α in the brain, is a key parameter dictating glucocorticoid responsiveness.
“In contrast, GR-β permanently resides in the nucleus where it selectively acts as a dominant negative inhibitor of GR-α (75). The relative abundance of the inhibitor GR-β, which normally represents only 1% of GR-α in the brain, is thus a key parameter in dictating GC responsiveness (76).”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [75]
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Self-citationAssociation of Coronary Artery Disease With Glucocorticoid Receptor N363S Variant
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Self-citationGlucocorticoid Action Networks—An Introduction to Systems Biology
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Self-citationAssociation of obesity, but not diabetes or hypertension, with glucocorticoid receptor N363S variant
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v-mosOncoproteins Affect the Nuclear Retention and Reutilization of Glucocorticoid Receptors
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BackgroundCharmandari, E., Ichijo, T., Jubiz, W., Baid, S. K., Zachman, K., Chrousos, G. P., & Kino, T. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0892 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationCharmandari, E., Kino, T., Ichijo, T., Zachman, K., Alatsatianos, A., & Chrousos, G. P. (2006) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1893 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
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Familial/Sporadic Glucocorticoid Resistance Syndrome and Hypertension
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Self-citationThe glucocorticoid receptor gene, longevity, and the complex disorders of Western societies
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Self-citationA TthIII1 polymorphism on the 5′ flanking region of the glucocorticoid receptor gene (GRL)
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Charmandari, E., Nicolaides, N. C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2014) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61684-0 · Cited by 644 · see citing works
Self-citationStress, the Stress System and the Role of Glucocorticoids
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Self-citationStress, epigenetics and depression: A systematic review
Park, C., Rosenblat, J. D., Brietzke, E., Pan, Z., Lee, Y., Cao, B., Zuckerman, H., Kalantarova, A., & McIntyre, R. S. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.010 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain
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Steroidogenesis in the skin: Implications for local immune functions
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Epigenetics and the regulation of stress vulnerability and resilience
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Circadian endocrine rhythms: the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and its actions
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Self-citationThe circadian clock and glucocorticoids – interactions across many time scales
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Optimized glucocorticoid therapy: teaching old drugs new tricks
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Glucocorticoid resistance as a major drive in sepsis pathology
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Self-citationEncoding and decoding mechanisms of pulsatile hormone secretion
Walker, J. J., Terry, J. R., Tsaneva‐Atanasova, K., Armstrong, S. P., McArdle, C. A., & Lightman, S. L. (2010) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2010.02087.x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Mechanisms of brain glucocorticoid resistance in stress-induced psychopathologies
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Self-citationZayed, A., Baranowski, C., Compagnion, A.-C., Vernochet, C., Karaki, S., Cuttoli, R. D.-D., Saint-Jour, E., Bhattacharya, S., Marti, F., Vanhoutte, P., et al. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-29380-8 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nicolaides, N. C., Galata, Z., Kino, T., Chrousos, G. P., & Charmandari, E.
- Affiliations
- Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens (GR)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Charmandari, Evangelia
- Venue
- Steroids
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-01
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-12
- ISSN
- 0039-128X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2813911
- OpenAlex
- W2020896282
- Cited by
- 436
- References
- 139
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 2.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Steroids (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (ZIAHD008732)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Chromatin Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Receptor Mechanisms and Signaling
- Keywords
- glucocorticoid receptor, steroid hormone receptors, ligand-dependent transcription factors, glucocorticoid-responsive genes, chromatin remodeling, RNA polymerase II, transcriptional activation, receptor structure, homeostasis
- MeSH terms
- Drug Resistance, Gene Expression Regulation, Glucocorticoids, Humans, Mutation, Protein Processing, Post-Translational, Receptors, Glucocorticoid, Protein Structure, Tertiary, Response Elements
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