Cited by 1,785Treatment of Major DepressionSex and Gender in HealthcareMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum

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Why is depression more prevalent in women?

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Albert, Paul R.·2015·Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience

DOI 10.1503/jpn.150205PMC PMC4478054

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Abstract

Major depression is a chronic illness with a high prevalence and is a major component of disease burden. Depressive disorders were the second leading cause of years lived with disability in 2010 in Canada, the United States and globally.[1][1],[2][2] When depression-related deaths due to suicide and

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“In view of the high prevalence of depression in women (Albert 2015 ), and the biological necessity of focusing on sex as a critical factor, it is imperative to conduct studies of effort-related aspects of motivation in male and female rats.”
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“Women are 50% more likely than men to experience a mood disorder over their lifetime (Albert, 2015).”
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“Some others explained that the higher prevalence of depression among women can be partially explained by conditions such as premenstrual dysphoric disorder, postpartum depression and postmenopausal depression and anxiety, which are associated with changes in ovarian hormones [31].”
Background
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“Females tend to smoke to cope with stress more than men as they are more susceptible to anxiety disorders [18,30,31].”
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“Interestingly, the clusters also had different sex distributions, with the depression-prone Cluster-1 being predominantly female, which is in line with existing studies of depression [76].”
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Christiansen, S. C., Veronez, C. L., Smith, T., Riedl, M. A., & Zuraw, B. L. (2023) · Allergy and Asthma Proceedings · doi:10.2500/aap.2023.44.220096 · Cited by 12
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“In many cases, this is due to hormonal differences and personal traits (Albert, 2015), as well as to the way males and females deal with stressful life events.”
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“In addition, the ratio of depression between males and females is 1 and 1.7 (Albert, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“[Table 2].”
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Background
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Result
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“Women have twice as manymental problems as males [6].”
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“This is based on the risk factors that have been found [15,16].”
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“However, several studies have indicated that depression is more prevalent in women.(59,60) It is thought that representativeness of the sample collected in this study is related to these discrepancies.”
Background
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“Depression tends to be more common in women, especially those aged 14 to 25 years (Albert, 2015) and the NEET population is now fairly balanced between males and females (Powell, 2018); thus, in actuality, average levels of depression amongst NEETs are likely to be greater and average levels…”
Background
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“Women are more prone to depression than men for many reasons, some of which may be related to the workload of managing the home and taking care of their families [18].”
Background
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“Depression is a major cause of disability especially at older ages and there are sex differences [8].”
BackgroundMethod
Combined’ Neck/Back Pain and Psychological Distress/Morbidity Among the Saudi Population: A Cross-Sectional Study
Al-Ghamdi, S. H., Shubair, M. M., Angawi, K., Alzahrani, J. M., Khormi, A. A. M., Alshammari, R. F., Alshammari, N. S., Aldahash, R., Otayf, B. Y., Alzahrani, H. S., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.870600 · Cited by 11
“In addition, females are also prone to stresses of life due to their reproductive life span and course of life (Albert, 2015; Albert and Newhouse, 2019).”
Background
Unlocking Adolescent Mental Health: Exploring Social Determinants and Depression With the Social Ecological Model
Robins, L. B., Rodgers, D., Barburoğlu, Y., Griffith, J. A. H., & Arnold, C. L. (2024) · Journal of Human Services · doi:10.52678/001c.122132 · Cited by 20
The global prevalence of depression and anxiety among fibromyalgia patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Jafari, M., Zadgari, E., Lichahi, M. A., Vesali-Moghaddam, A., Amirian, B., Kazemian, N., Mirkalaie, S. M. M., Reyhani, H., Saeedi, C., Ghavidel‐Parsa, B., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120340 · Cited by 10
Patterns of Adverse Childhood Experiences, Social Problem-Solving, and Mental Health Among Latina Immigrants
Alvarez, C., Sabina, C., Brockie, T., Perrin, N., Román, M. J. S., Escobar‐Acosta, L., Vrany, E. A., Cooper, L. A., & Hill‐Briggs, F. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211072159 · Cited by 17
“We focus on Latina women with depression/anxiety given that they experience mood disorders more than men (Albert, 2015) and given their childrearing responsibilities (Hossain et al., 2015) and opportunities to reduce the risk of contributing to intergenerational ACEs.”
Background
Investigating sedentariness and health status of primary school teachers in Ghana
Ansah, E. W., Adabla, M., Norgbedzie, J., Aloko, E. A., & Hagan, J. E. (2023) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-023-09925-3 · Cited by 14
Common mental disorders among women in reproductive age group: An analysis of national mental health survey, India 2016
Annajigowda, H. H., Nirisha, P. L., Ganjekar, S., Rao, G. N., Gururaj, G., Varghese, M., Benegal, V., & NMHS National Collaborators group (2023) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_832_23 · Cited by 13
“[20] Other factors that have similar trends to existing literature are women who are divorced and residing in the urban metro and the population considered high risk for CMDs. Women with increasing years of education and income showed lower rates of CMDs.”
Differences in mental health status between individuals living with diabetes, and pre-diabetes in Qatar: A cross-sectional study
Mahmoud, M., & Mahmood, R. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23515 · Cited by 13
“As a result, females might be more willing to speak and express feelings to a friend or family member much more readily than males who tend to avoid discussing emotions and feelings partially attributed to gender roles [28,43].”
BackgroundResult
Healthy and Unhealthy Dietary Patterns of Depressive Symptoms in Middle-Aged Women
Choi, J., Park, S., & Lee, H. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16060776 · Cited by 10
“Middle-aged women experience emotional changes, such as depression, anxiety, and sleep problems, due to postmenopausal hormonal changes [1,2].”
Background
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), perceived stress, and depressive symptoms in a prospective cohort study of black women
Schildroth, S., Henn, B. C., Vines, A. I., Geller, R. J., Lovett, S. M., Coleman, C. M., Bethea, T. N., Botelho, J. C., Calafat, A. M., Milando, C. W., et al. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172445 · Cited by 10
Do sex and gender aspects influence non-adherence to secondary prevention measures after myocardial infarction?
Moreno, G., Vicent, L., Rosillo, N., Delgado, J., del Cerro, E. P., & Bueno, H. (2024) · American Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpc.2024.100713 · Cited by 11
“It is known that caregivers usually look after themselves much less than after the patients they take care of, so it is not surprising that caregiving burden influences adherence to preventive therapies [18].”
Background
Caring hands, heavy minds: prevalence and associated factors of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms among nurses in Mogadishu, Somalia
Mohamed, N. A., Mohamud, R. Y. H., Mohamed, Y. A., Ali, A. M., Aden, H. A., Hidigow, A. M. H., Mohamed, A. A., Gabow, A. A., Hassan, M. S., Sidow, N. O., et al. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-03801-7 · Cited by 13
“Depression and anxiety are particularly more prevalent among women, influenced by biological, hormonal, and psychosocial factors [50, 51].”
Demographic and clinical characterization of multiple sclerosis in Mexico: The REMEMBer study
Bertado-Cortés, B., Venzor-Mendoza, C., Rubio-Ordoñez, D., Pérez-Pérez, J. R., Novelo-Manzano, L. A., Villamil-Osorio, L. V., Jiménez-Ortega, M. D. J., Villalpando-Gueich, M. D. L. L., Sánchez-Rosales, N. A., & García-Talavera, V. (2020) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2020.102575 · Cited by 13
Relationship between antibiotic exposure and subsequent mental health disorders in a primary care health system
Prichett, L. M., Yolken, R. H., Wu, L., Severance, E. G., & Kumra, T. (2022) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100430 · Cited by 10
“…children and adolescents may be more susceptible to changes in the microbiome, which ultimately leads to a dysregulation of the gut-brain axis, whereas females are more susceptible to hormonal differences and changes in adolescence (Kushak and Winter 2020; Kozyrskyj et al., 2016; Albert, 2015).”
Background
Burnout prevalence and contributing factors among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey study in an urban community in Thailand
Kunno, J., Supawattanabodee, B., Sumanasrethakul, C., Wiriyasirivaj, B., & Yubonpunt, P. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269421 · Cited by 11
“One study suggested that the risk factors for depression in women are likely to be of biological origin, such as fluctuations in hormone levels, as seen during the changes in the menstrual cycle [33].”
Background
Vortioxetine liposomes as a novel alternative to improve drug stability under stress conditions: toxicity studies and evaluation of antidepressant-like effect
Nodari, C. H., Quadros, N. D. D., Chiarentin, R., da Silva, F. P., Morisso, F. D. P., Charão, M. F., Fleck, J. D., de Mattos, C. B., Betti, A. H., & Verza, S. G. (2022) · Pharmacological Reports · doi:10.1007/s43440-022-00412-w · Cited by 10
“Females were chosen, since vortioxetine is used in the treatment of major depression, a pathology more prevalent in women than in man [48], and subjects engaged in mating and parturition are more reflective of the human population [49].”
Method
The effects of different types of social support on depressive symptomatology of prison officers
Lambert, E. G., Worley, R. M., Worley, V. B., & Hogan, N. L. (2022) · Criminal Justice Studies · doi:10.1080/1478601x.2022.2153127 · Cited by 10
“tend to report higher levels of depression than men in society (Albert, 2015).”
Background
Normal range CAG repeat size variations in the HTT gene are associated with an adverse lipoprotein profile partially mediated by body mass index
Faquih, T. O., Aziz, N. A., Gardiner, S. L., Li‐Gao, R., de Mutsert, R., Milaneschi, Y., Trompet, S., Jukema, J. W., Rosendaal, F. R., Vlieg, A. V. H., et al. (2023) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddad020 · Cited by 10
Association of TNF-alpha G-308A gene polymorphism with depression: a meta-analysis
Shin, K., Jeong, H. C., Choi, D., Kim, S. N., & Kim, T. (2017) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s143434 · Cited by 10
“Differences in gender ratio are of particular importance, since women are about twice as likely as men to develop depression.(43) Owing to the lack of genotype information by gender, we were unable to do a subgroup analysis.”
Temporal trends of co-diagnosis of depression and/or anxiety among female maternal and non-maternal hospitalizations: Results from Nationwide Inpatient Sample 2004–2013
Pino, E. C., Zuo, Y., Schor, S., Zatwarnicki, S., Henderson, D. C., Borba, C. P. C., Milanovic, S. M., & Kalesan, B. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.077 · Cited by 10
Origin of Sex-Biased Mental Disorders: An Evolutionary Perspective
Singh, R. S., Singh, K. K., & Singh, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/s00239-021-09999-9 · Cited by 11
“A similar pattern is present for mental disorders, with a higher prevalence of anxiety and depression in women and a higher prevalence of antisocial disorders in men (Albert 2015).”
Background
Sexual Activity and Depressive Symptoms in Later Life: Insights from Jamaica
Willie-Tyndale, D., Donaldson‐Davis, K., Ashby-Mitchell, K., Davis, J. M., Aiken, W. D., & Eldemire‐Shearer, D. (2021) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2021.1882636 · Cited by 10
“We included age, education, chronic disease, selfrated health, and genitourinary morbidity as covariates because of their relationships with depression (Albert, 2015; Chang-Quan et al., 2010; Dmochowski & Gomelsky, 2009; Rortveit et al., 2007).”
Background
Factors Influencing Depression among Indonesians during the COVID-19 Outbreak
Sarfika, R., Malini, H., Putri, D. E., Buanasari, A., Abdullah, K. L., & Freska, W. (2021) · Nurse Media Journal of Nursing · doi:10.14710/nmjn.v11i3.36783 · Cited by 12
“regulating the hormone estrogen in the male and female brains are also factors in causing gender differences in depression (Albert, 2015).”
Background
Linguistic analysis of Latinx patients’ responses to a text messaging adjunct during cognitive behavioral therapy for depression
Hernandez-Ramos, R., Altszyler, E., Figueroa, C. A., Avila-Garcia, P., & Aguilera, A. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.104027 · Cited by 11
Insomnia and nightmare profiles during the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal: characterization and associated factors
Gonçalves, M., Henriques, A., Costa, A. R., Correia, D. M., Severo, M., Lucas, R., Barros, H., Santos, A. C., Ribeiro, A. I., Rocha, A., et al. (2022) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.12.018 · Cited by 14
“A possible explanation is their higher propensity to stress related disorders and anxiety disorders [30], which could be due to biological and society-driven risk factors [31].”
Assessment of Psychosocial Functioning of Polish Nurses during COVID-19 Pandemic
Rachubińska, K., Cybulska, A. M., Sołek-Pastuszka, J., Pańczyk, M., Stanisławska, M., Ustianowski, P., & Grochans, E. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031435 · Cited by 10
“The prevalence rate of anxiety and depressiveness was found to be higher in women, which probably reflects the gender difference in anxiety and depressive symptoms [34].”
Background
Management of depression during the perinatal period: state of the evidence
Falek, I., Acri, M. C., Dominguez, J., Havens, J. F., McCord, M., Sisco, S., Wilcox, W. C., & Hoagwood, K. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health Systems · doi:10.1186/s13033-022-00531-0 · Cited by 10
“Introduction Approximately one in every ten women experiences major depression within their lifetime [4, 77], which is twice as high as rates of depression amongst men [5, 17, 39].”
Background
Exploring association between food insecurity and depression among older adults in India
Patel, R., Kumar, S., & Chauhan, S. (2022) · Dialogues in Health · doi:10.1016/j.dialog.2022.100042 · Cited by 10
“Also, higher depression among older females could partially be explained by postmenopausal depression and anxiety [2].”
Background
Indicators of inclusion in education
Mezzanotte, C., & Calvel, C. (2023) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/d94f3bd8-en · Cited by 29
Depression and accelerated aging: the eveningness chronotype and low adherence to the mediterranean diet are associated with depressive symptoms in older subjects
Sorlí, J. V., de la Cámara, E., Fernández-Carrión, R., Asensio, E. M., Portolés, O., Ortega-Azorín, C., Pérez-Fidalgo, A., Villamil, L. V., Fitó, M., Barragán, R., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17010104 · Cited by 9
“Among them, we can mention the heterogeneity in the definition of depression [16], demographic characteristics [39,40], and other lifestyle factors [41–43].”
Investigating global mental health: contributions from political science
Patterson, A. S., Boadu, N. Y., Clark, M., Janes, C., Monteiro, N., Roberts, J. H., Shiffman, J., Thomas, D., & Wipfli, H. (2020) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2020.1724315 · Cited by 15
“Does female representation lead to policies that combat poverty, food insecurity, and interpersonal violence, all factors that increase women’s vulnerability to mental illness (Albert, 2015; Gibbs et al., 2018; Maselko, 2017)?”
Background
PTSD among road traffic accident survivors in africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Mekonnen, N., Duko, B., Kercho, M. W., & Bedaso, A. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11539 · Cited by 9
“This could be due to women’s experience of mental health problems such as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and perinatal depression, which have an association with changes in ovarian hormones which might add to the observed dissimilarity in the risk of PTSD among female RTA survivors [52].”
Background
Differential Gene Expression and DNA Methylation in the Risk of Depression in LOAD Patients
Upadhya, S., Gingerich, D. O., Lutz, M. W., & Chiba‐Falek, O. (2022) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom12111679 · Cited by 9
“Most relevant to this study, it has been suggested that depression has a higher prevalence in females [40], while men may have more severe forms of reported depression [41].”
Background
Exploring the Lived Experience on Recovery from Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) among Women Survivors and Five CHIME Concepts: A Qualitative Study
Idris, A., Akhir, N. M., Mohamad, M. S., & Sarnon, N. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13020151 · Cited by 9
“Introduction Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), better known as clinical depression, is a chronic illness that contributes significantly to disease burden [1].”
Background
Depression and Quality of Life of People Accused of Witchcraft and Living in Alleged Witches’ Camps in Northern Ghana
Adam, L., Shani, A. K., Yaro, P. B., Adwan-Kamara, L., & Tabong, P. T. (2023) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2023/6830762 · Cited by 9
Prevalence of eating disorders in patients with bipolar disorder: a scoping review of the literature
Yakovleva, Y. V., Kasyanov, E. D., & Mazo, G. E. (2023) · Consortium Psychiatricum · doi:10.17816/cp6338 · Cited by 13
“This finding may be explained by sex disparities in the prevalence of BD itself: BD type I is equally prevalent in males and females, while the prevalence of BD type II among females is almost twice as high as that among males [61].”
Background
Comorbidity of depression and type 2 diabetes in Egypt results from the International Prevalence and Treatment of Diabetes and Depression (INTERPRET-DD) study
Okasha, T. A., Mostafa, B. M., Ibrahim, I., Abdelgawad, A. A., Lloyd, C. E., Sartorius, N., & Elkholy, H. A. (2024) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640241228431 · Cited by 9
“…and reported a higher prevalence of depression in females (Deischinger et al., 2020), which could be explained by hormonal changes females experiencing during different phases of their life (Albert, 2015) as well as reporting differences or the greater utilization of health services by females.”
Background
Moderate Alcohol Consumption Increases the Risk of Clinical Relapse in Male Depressed Patients Treated with Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors
Mușat, M. I., Militaru, F., Gheorman, V., Udriștoiu, I., Mitran, S. I., & Cătălin, B. (2024) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics14111140 · Cited by 11
“With a gender ratio of approximately one male to two females suffering from depression, our data align with previous reports sustaining that women are twice as likely to experience MDD compared to men [83,84].”
Result
Collaborative care for common mental disorders in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Faisal, M. R., Salam, F. T., Vidyasagaran, A. L., Carswell, C., Naseri, M. W., Shinwari, Z., Fulbright, H., Zavala, G. A., Gilbody, S. M., & Siddiqi, N. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.07.086 · Cited by 13
Risk Factors for Depression in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Liu, J., Jin, H., Yon, D. K., Soysal, P., Koyanagi, A., Smith, L., Shin, J. I., Li, Y., Rahmati, M., & Zhang, J. (2024) · Orthopedics · doi:10.3928/01477447-20240821-10 · Cited by 9
Dysbiosis and fecal microbiota transplant: Contemplating progress in health, neurodegeneration and longevity
Ahmadi, S., Hasani, A., Khabbaz, A., Poortahmasebi, V., Hosseini, S., Yasdchi, M., Mehdizadehfar, E., Mousavi, Z. B., Hasani, R., Nabizadeh, E., et al. (2024) · Biogerontology · doi:10.1007/s10522-024-10136-4 · Cited by 9
“Women are more prone to depression than men (Albert 2015).”
Association of premature natural and surgical menopause with incidence of depression requiring hospitalization: a prospective cohort study
Xu, M., Yin, X., & Gong, Y. (2024) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2024.11.002 · Cited by 9

Authors: Albert, P. R.
Affiliations: University of Ottawa (CA)
Corresponding author: Albert, Paul R.
ORCID: Albert, Paul R.
Venue: Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience
Publisher: Canadian Science Publishing
Published: 2015-07
Volume: 40
Issue: 4
Pages: 219-221
ISSN: 1180-4882 (ISSN-L)
1488-2434
DOI: 10.1503/jpn.150205
PMC: PMC4478054
OpenAlex: W2418872436
Cited by: 1,785
References: 29
Citations by year: 2026: 149 · 2025: 255 · 2024: 224 · 2023: 233 · 2022: 256 · 2021: 271 · 2020: 188 · 2019: 115 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 7
FWCI: 22.57
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.nrcresearchpress.com/page/about/CorporateTextAndDataMining (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Canadian Institutes of Health Research (115098_1)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Keywords: major depressive disorder, sex differences, women, prevalence, suicide, disability burden, chronic disease
MeSH terms: Animals, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics, Sex Factors, Prevalence

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