Pressed for Time? Goal Conflict Shapes how Time is Perceived, Spent, and Valued
Abstract
Why do consumers often feel pressed for time? This research provides a novel answer to this question: consumers’ subjective perceptions of goal conflict. The authors show that beyond the number of goals competing for consumers’ time, perceived conflict between goals makes them feel that they have less time. Five experiments demonstrate that perceiving greater conflict between goals makes people feel time constrained and that stress and anxiety drive this effect. These effects, which generalize across a variety of goals and types of conflict (both related and unrelated to demands on time), influence how consumers spend time as well as how much they are willing to pay to save time. The authors identify two simple interventions that can help consumers mitigate goal conflict's negative effects: slow breathing and anxiety reappraisal. Together, the findings shed light on the factors that drive how consumers perceive, spend, and value their time.
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The time perception measure has a good level of reliability (α = 0.89).
“The time perception measure [49] is a five-item questionnaire that has a good level of reliability (α = 0.89).”
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InfluentialThe power of coworkers: the incidental effect of workplace green behavior on green consumption
Yao, F. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04774-z · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Research on incidental effect has also confirmed that there exist certain psychological processes that carry over to impact subordinately conjunct subsequent decisions (Etkin et al., 2015; Etkin & Memmi, 2021; Kleiman & Hassin, 2013; Mehta & Zhu, 2016; Savary et al., 2015).”
Byun, K. J. (2024) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-08-2023-0633 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
From reviews to product titles: How to nudge consumer purchase decisions
Bai, S., Zhou, J., Han, C., & Yang, M. (2025) · Electronic Commerce Research and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2025.101539 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bozacı, İ. (2019) · Opus uluslararası toplum araştırmaları dergisi · doi:10.26466/opus.518712 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Time Perception Scale: Measurement invariance between the United States and Japan
Yakin, S., & Niiya, Y. (2023) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12594 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Time poverty inhibits employees’ knowledge sharing by suppressing their future orientation
Li, Z., Li, N., & Sun, X. (2025) · Knowledge Management Research & Practice · doi:10.1080/14778238.2025.2488883 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…describes a chronic and persistent state of feeling that there is insufficient time (Perlow, 1999), influenced by broader factors such as goal conflict (Etkin et al., 2015), a lack of control over one’s time (Peters & Raaijmakers, 1998), and anxiety about social status (Q. Zhao et al., 2024).”
Stress and Well-Being at the Consumer–Employee Interface
Simpson, B. J. K., Stackhouse, M. R. D., & White, K. (2019) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1479-355520190000017002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Why Passionate Employees Can Have It All: Passion Lowers Time Stress by Enhancing Goal IntegrationPreprint
Jachimowicz, J., & Whillans, A. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qd2zf · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Means-Goal Conflict and Novel Brand Choice
Gamlin, J., & Brick, D. J. (2024) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucae070 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lin, Z., Givi, J., & Cui, A. P. (2025) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115523 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sustainability Cues Can Delay Consumption
Huang, F., Siddiqui, R. A., & Liu, Q. (. (2025) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucaf050 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A broad view of time predicts greater subjective well-being
Bergstrom, T., Reiff, J. S., Mogilner, C., & Ersner-Hershfield, H. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112663 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Perhaps taking a (figurative) step back and looking across the broader scope of one ’ s time, as if from a bird ’ s-eye view, is associated with greater well-being.”
BackgroundDo I Really Want to Change? The Effectiveness of Goal Ambivalence Feedback on Dieters’ Motivation
Fadardi, J. S., Borhani, S., Cox, W. M., & Stacy, A. W. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12110441 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Consumer Well-Being: A Typology and Examination of Voluntary Simplicity
Ezell, D. (2019) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Exchanging cents for seconds : the happiness benefits of choosing time over money
Whillans, A. V. (2017) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0348134 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Gamification : The influence of gamification on the consumer purchase intention
Mucollari, L., & Samokhin, V. (2017) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The multiple-identity effect: how multiple social identities shape the perception of time
Li, M., & Bi, S. (2025) · Marketing Letters · doi:10.1007/s11002-025-09779-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In other research examining the antecedents of time perception, Etkin et al. (2015) explored how conflicting goals—specifically, how the pursuit of one goal interferes with the pursuit of others—affects time perception.”
When Does Anxiety Increase Attempts to Spend Time and Money Efficiently?
Koley, S., Warren, C., & Ramanathan, S. (2025) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.22236 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Study 4 tests an alternative explanation: time scarcity, rather than goal anxiety per se, might motivate consumers to seek efficiency (Etkin et al. 2015; Kapoor and Tripathi 2020).”
InfluentialThe Decision-Making Process and Impact of Individual Decisions for Joint Consumption
Jones, S. M., & Campbell, M. C. (2025) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/00222437251389950 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“When anxious about ID-Self, consumers often choose avoidant, status quo (Luce 1998; Luce, Payne, and Bettman 2001), or low-risk/low-reward options (Raghunathan and Pham 1999) and may pay more to alleviate anxiety (Etkin, Evangelidis, and Aaker 2015).”
Didn’t Have Time or Didn’t Make Time? How Language Shapes Perceived Control over Time and Motivation
Abreu, L., Etkin, J., & Howe, H. S. (2025) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/00222437251394122 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Although other resources such as money, energy, and social support are also important (Shaddy and Shah 2018), spending time is a basic requirement for many if not most goal pursuits (Etkin 2019; Etkin, Evangelidis, and Aaker 2015; Jhang and Lynch 2015; Zauberman and Lynch 2005).”
InfluentialSelf-citationTime pressure and shopping behaviour in retailing: a review and research agenda
Sarkar, B. G., & Mehta, R. (2026) · Spanish Journal of Marketing - ESIC · doi:10.1108/sjme-01-2025-0028 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Shopping the way to my goals: an analysis of purchase impact on perceived goal progress
Gonçalves, M. A., Nique, W. M., & Gonçalves, D. (2017) · Revista de Administração · doi:10.1016/j.rausp.2017.05.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lim, G.-Y., & Kim, A. (2024) · Psychology & Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.22017 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Stability of complement and substitute relationships in time usage among discretionary activities
Umesh, U. N., & Weeks, W. A. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.1707 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The effects of hope and anxiety in driving consumer intentions to adopt new product solutions
Lin, Y. (2018) · Spiral (Imperial College London) · doi:10.25560/65695 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sources of Errors in Thinking and How to Avoid Them
Athreya, B. H., & Mouza, C. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-12364-6_7
Zhu, K. (2017) · Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository)
GENÇ TÜKETİCİLERİN ÜRÜNÜN YENİLİK DERECESİ ALGISININ ALGILANAN KALİTE ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİSİ
Çal, B., & Erdem, A. (2017) · Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi · doi:10.18092/ulikidince.357151
Dynamic Gains in Growing Threat and Threat Appraisal
Riskind, J. H., & Rector, N. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8782-5_5
Self-regulation and intertemporal consumer impatience
Kim, H. J. (2020) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.192097
The Study on the Effect of Waiting Line on Consumers’ Perceived Quality and Emotional State
Li, N., & Song, J. (2019) · ASIA MARKETING JOURNAL · doi:10.53728/2765-6500.1333
Goal Conflict When Making Decisions for OthersPreprint
Ferrer, R. A., Orehek, E., & Padgett, L. S. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k3bft
中川, 正. (2017) · Quarterly Journal of Marketing · doi:10.7222/marketing.2017.010
The Empirical Study on the Impulse Buying Intention of Users of Internet Consumer Loans Applications
Tailin, G., Fei, H., & Jingning, W. (2020) · Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology · doi:10.58664/mustjournal.2020.01.057
Opinion Aggregator Platforms In The Restaurant Sector
Rodrigues, P. C. L., Sousa, A., Vaz, J. F. P., & Riberio, P. (2023) · European Conference on Social Media · doi:10.34190/ecsm.10.1.1237
O trabalho doméstico não remunerado no Brasil
Garcia, B. C. (2021) · doi:10.47749/t/unicamp.2021.1164582
- Authors
- Etkin, J., Evangelidis, I., & Aaker, J.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Etkin, Jordan
- Evangelidis, Ioannis
- Aaker, Jennifer
- Venue
- Journal of Marketing Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-06
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 394-406
- ISSN
- 0022-2437 (ISSN-L)
- 1547-7193
- OpenAlex
- W2152697593
- Cited by
- 117
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 6.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Marketing Research (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della Ricerca - Bocconi (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Temporal Perspectives Research
- Keywords
- goal conflict, time perception, time constraints, time management, value of time, stress, anxiety, slow-paced breathing, consumer behavior
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