Language, Race, and White Public Space
Open accessAbstract
White public space is constructed through intense monitoring of racialized populations and the invisibility of similar signs in Whites; Mock Spanish reproduces negative racializing stereotypes of Chicanos and Latinos while indexing whiteness as an unmarked norm.
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- Findingreasoning§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity
Many usages of AAE origin in White English are curiously indeterminate, even where an AAE source is recognizable to an etymologist, making it often impossible to know whether the usage indexes any 'blackness' to its user or audience.
“While obvious”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Findingown data§ "Spanish Accents" and "Mock Spanish": linguistic Order and Disorder in White Public Space
For Whites, precisely the opposite is true: Whites permit themselves a considerable amount of disorder precisely at the language boundary between Spanish and English in public discourse.
“My research suggests that precisely the opposite is true for Whites.Whites permit themselves a considerable amount of disorder precisely at the language boundary that is a site of discipline for Puerto Ricans (and other members of historically Spanish-speaking populations in the United States)that is, the boundary between Spanish and English in public discourse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ White Linguistic Normalcy: Orderly Disorder
The public written use of Spanish by Whites is often grossly nonstandard and ungrammatical.
“While Puerto Ricans agonize over whether or not their English is cultivated enough, the public written use of Spanish by Whites is often grossly nonstandard and ungrammatical.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hill 1993a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingown data§ The Semiotics of Mock Spanish
Many Spanish speakers do hear the racist message of Mock Spanish.
“It is clear that many Spanish speakers do hear the racist message of Mock Spanish.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity
African Americans themselves apparently use Mock Spanish, as evidenced by Terry McMillan's 1996 novel How Stella Got Her Groove Back.
“Furthermore, African Americans diemselves apparently use Mock Spanish: Terry McMillan's 1996 novel, How Stella Got Her Groove Back, is rich in attestations in the speech of Stella, a beautiful and successful African American professional woman from California.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McMillan 1996
- Findingcitation§ The Semiotics of Mock Spanish
Members of historically Spanish-speaking populations do not share Whites' understanding of Mock Spanish.
“I have collected some evidence that members of historically Spanish-speaking populations do not share Whites' understanding of Mock Spanish.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity
New tokens of White 'hipness,' often retrievable as Black in origin only by the most dogged scholarship (although often visible to Blacks), are constantly created out of AAE materials.
“New tokens of White”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Interpretationnone given§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
By indirect indexicality, Mock Spanish reproduces highly negative racializing stereotypes of Chicanos and Latinos.
“By indirect indexicality, it reproduces highly negative racializing stereotypes of Chicanos and Latinos.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
By direct indexicality, Mock Spanish presents speakers as possessing desirable personal qualities.
“By direct indexicality, Mock Spanish presents speakers as possessing desirable personal qualities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?
In light of the analysis suggested, the 'subversions' noted by Gubar and Butler can also be seen simply as one more example of 'orderly' disorder reserved to elites in White public space, rather than as carnivalesque inversions.
“hi the light of the analysis that I have suggested above, the”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?
The art of Guillermo Gomez Pena, to the degree that it is acceptable to White audiences, may precisely 'whiten' this performer and others like him.
“The art of a Gomez Pena, to the degree that it is acceptable to White audiences, may precisely”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Premisereasoning§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
Racism is a form of widely shared apparent irrationality.
“We have always been interested in forms of widely shared apparent irrationality, from divination to the formation of unilineal kin groups to the hyperconsumption of (or abstention from) the flesh of cattle, andracism is precisely this kind of phenomenon.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
Mock Spanish exhibits a complex semiotics.
“One such form, Mock Spanish, exhibits a complex semiotics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity
Similar usages can be highly salient for Blacks, as evidenced by an audience member quoted by Lippi-Green (1997:196).
“Yet similar usages can be highly salient for Blacks: Lippi-Green (1997:196) quotes an audience member on an episode of Oprah Winfrey:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lippi-Green (1997:196)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
In White public space, language mixing by Whites, required for the expression of a highly valued colloquial persona, takes several forms.
“White public space is constructed through (1) intense monitoring of the speech of racialized populations such as Chicanos and Latinos and African Americans for signs of linguistic disorder and (2) the invisibility of almost identical signs in the speech of Whites, where language mixing, required for the expression of a highly valued type of colloquial persona, takes several forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Semiotics of Mock Spanish
Because of its covert and indirect properties, Mock Spanish may be an exceptionally powerful site for the reproduction of White racist attitudes.
“Because of its coven and indirect properties, Mock Spanish may be an exceptionally powerful site for the reproduction of White racist attitudes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?
Rampton (1995) reports extensive use of out-group linguistic tokens among British adolescents of a variety of ethnic origins, including strongly racialized populations like West Indians and South Asians as well as Whites.
“An important possible exception is the phenomenon of”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rampton (1995)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity
The most important source of linguistic incorporation into White public space is the 'crossover' of forms from African American English (AAE).
“Perhaps the most important is what Smitherman (1994) calls the”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Smitherman (1994)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Interpretationnone given§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity
AAE and White English are so thoroughly entangled in the United States that crossover is extremely difficult to study.
“However, AAE and White English are so thoroughly entangled in the United States that crossover is extremely difficult to study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Interpretationnone given§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
White public space is constructed through intense monitoring of the speech of racialized populations such as Chicanos and Latinos and African Americans for signs of linguistic disorder.
“White public space is constructed through (1) intense monitoring of the speech of racialized populations such as Chicanos and Latinos and African Americans for signs of linguistic disorder and (2) the invisibility of almost identical signs in the speech of Whites, where language mixing, required for the expression of a highly valued type of colloquial persona, takes several forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Language, Race, and White Public Space
White public space is constructed through the invisibility of almost identical signs in the speech of Whites.
“White public space is constructed through (1) intense monitoring of the speech of racialized populations such as Chicanos and Latinos and African Americans for signs of linguistic disorder and (2) the invisibility of almost identical signs in the speech of Whites, where language mixing, required for the expression of a highly valued type of colloquial persona, takes several forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
- May combine two claims. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityBy far the richest examples of linguistic incorporations are Mock Spanish and AAE crossover.
“By far the richest examples of linguistic incorporations are Mock Spanish and AAE crossover.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone given§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityTokens of 'Mock French' like 'Mercy buckets' and 'bow-koo' do occur, but they are relatively rare, especially compared with the very extensive use of French in advertising, especially in the fashion industry, to convey luxury and exclusivity.
“For instance, tokens of”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ NotesMock Spanish seems to be widespread in the English-speaking world.
“the construction of whiteness is probably a project of global scope, and in fact Mock Spanish seems to be widespread in the English-speaking world.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone given§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityAs far as the author knows, no members of historically Spanish-speaking populations use Mock Spanish in anything like the routine way that Whites do.
“In contrast, as far as I know no members of historically Spanish-speaking populations use Mock Spanish, at least not in anything like the routine way that Whites do.23”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
May combine two claims.
Findingreasoning§ More Sources for Homogeneous Heterogeneity'Mock' forms vary widely in relative productivity and in the kinds of contexts in which they appear.
“In summary,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone given§ White Linguistic Normalcy: Orderly DisorderMock Spanish practices include semantic pejoration of Spanish loans: the use of positive or neutral Spanish words in humorous or negative senses.
“The practices of Mock Spanish include, first, semantic pejoration of Spanish loans: the use of positive or neutral Spanish words in humorous or negative senses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown data§ NotesSome Spanish speakers find some of the greeting cards in the sample funny.
“Some Spanish speakers find some of the greeting cards in my sample funny.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown data§ NotesOnly one case of apparent concern about Spanish-speaking opinion in reference to the use of Spanish in mass media has been discovered.
“I have discovered only one case of apparent concern about Spanish-speaking opinion in reference to the use of Spanish in mass media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingcitation§ NotesWorking-class speakers are less likely to use 'Mock Spanish' than are other Whites.
“Indeed, in other work (Hill 1995) I have suggested that working-class speakers are less likely to use”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hill 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ The Semiotics of Mock SpanishIn White public space, disorderly language by Whites (including Mock Spanish, cursing, and 'you know' type sins) is largely invisible, while disorderly language by racialized populations is hypervisible, to the point of being the object of expensive political campaigns and nationwide moral panics.
“One of the dimensions of this space is that disorder on the part of Whites (including not only Mock Spanish, but also cursing and a variety of locutionary sins of the”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hall et al. (1978) source
- cites Cohen (1972)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ NotesIn Rubin's (1992) matched-guise test, students who heard a lecture under the 'Asian slide' condition often reported that the lecturer had an Asian accent and scored lower on tests of comprehension of the lecture.
“Students who heard the lecture under the”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rubin (1992) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityMock Spanish must function somewhat differently in White public space than AAE crossover because it is narrower in its range of opacity and transparency.
“However, precisely because it is narrower in its range of opacity and transparency than is AAE”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ "Spanish Accents" and "Mock Spanish": linguistic Order and Disorder in White Public SpaceWhites hear other public Spanish as impolite and even dangerous.
“But Whites hear other public Spanish as impolite and even dangerous.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Urciuoli 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?The kinds of games reported by Hewitt remain reserved to childhood and are unable to break through the dominant voices of racism; Hewitt found that interracial friendship permitting teasing with racist epithets essentially vanished by age 16.
“The kinds of games reported by Hewitt, however, remain reserved to childhood, unable to break through the dominant voices of racism; Hewitt found that the kind of interracial friendship that permitted teasing with racist epithets essentially vanished from the lives of his subjects by the time they reached the age of 16.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hewitt (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationcitation§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?We cannot be sure that these phenomena are genuinely outside the linguistic order of racism until we understand dimensions of that order-within which age-graded cohorts may have a relatively enduring place.
“We cannot be sure that these phenomena are genuinely outside the linguistic order of racism until we understand dimensions of that order-within which age-graded cohorts may have a relatively enduring place.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Language, Race, and White Public SpaceRacial formation processes are contested and contradictory, yet global in their scope.
“Racism challenges the most advanced anthropological thinking, because racial formation processes (Omi and Winant 1994) are contested and contradictory, yet global in their scope.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Omi and Winant 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ NotesMock Spanish is precisely 'the way people talk'-and 'people' can only be that group that is unmarked and thereby 'White.' Thus positive individual qualities and 'whiteness' are simultaneously indexed.
“Mock Spanish is precisely”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?Carnivalesque inversions can be a 'weapon of the strong' as well as a 'weapon of the weak.'
“Or, perhaps we should say that carnivalesque inversions can be a”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Scott (1985)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ Can Mock Forms Subvert the Order of Racial Practices?Hewitt (1986) found that such crossings did not survive the adolescent years.
“However, only slightly more than a decade ago Hewitt (1986) found that such crossings did not survive the adolescent years.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hewitt (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityThe 'Black' indexicality of 'What's happening' is easily suppressed, but the 'Spanish' indexicality of 'Nada' is virtually impossible to suppress, and 'Nada' has in Mock Spanish the semantically pejorated sense 'absolutely nothing, less than zero.'
“That is, while the”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityIn general, tokens of Mock Spanish are relatively easy to spot and interpret, though some tokens (e.g., 'peon') may have suppressable original indexicality.
“It seems likely that there are tokens that originate in Mock Spanish where the original indexicality is suppressable (the word peon, pronounced [piyan], which appeared in English by the seventeenth century, may be an example of this type), but in general tokens of this practice are relatively easy to spot and interpret.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Interpretationnone given§ More Sources for Homogeneous HeterogeneityWhile probably few White readers of the 'For Better or for Worse' strip sense 'blackness' in 'What's happening?', most will immediately detect 'Nada' as 'Spanish.'
“While probably few White readers of this strip sense”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ The Semiotics of Mock SpanishThe incorporation of linguistic elements into the homogeneous heterogeneity of White public space draws on many sources.
“The”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
The authors state this as an assumption.
'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
“I use”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting dates for Warrior for Gringostroika
MinorThe note dates the same titled work to 1991, while the reference entry dates it to 1993.
“25. See, for instance, his Warrior for Gringostroika (1991).”
“10. Gomez-Pefia, Guillermo 1993 Warrior for Gringostroika. St. Paul, MN: Gray wolf Press.”
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Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective
Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2017) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404517000562 · Cited by 1,675 · see citing works
“…Press, 2017 0047-4045/16 $15.00 621 Language in Society 46, 621–647. doi:10.1017/S0047404517000562 challenging racializing discourses (Urciuoli 1996; Hill 1998; Dick & Wirtz 2011), they remain as pervasive as ever, as illustrated by recent claims about the supposed thirty million ‘word gap’…”
BackgroundInfluentialBauman, R., & Briggs, C. L. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511486647 · Cited by 1,164 · see citing works
Style: Language Variation and Identity
Coupland, N. (2007) · Cited by 963 · see citing works
From the Blackhand Side: Twitter as a Cultural Conversation
Brock, A. (2012) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2012.732147 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
“Black Twitter’s visibility via the trending topic algorithm—and the resultant othering of those conversations—led to Black Twitter’s framing as an intervention on ‘‘White public space’’ (Hill, 1995).”
BackgroundRosa, J. (2016) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12116 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Fought, C. (2006) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791215 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Global Englishes, Rip Slyme, and performativity
Pennycook, A. (2003) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2003.00240.x · Cited by 450 · see citing works
You da man: Narrating the racial other in the production of white masculinity
Bucholtz, M. (1999) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/1467-9481.00090 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
INDIGENOUS MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA, 1992–2004: Controversies, Ironies, New Directions
Jackson, J. E., & Warren, K. B. (2005) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120529 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Linguists' most dangerous myth: The fallacy of Creole Exceptionalism
DeGraff, M. (2005) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404505050207 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
INTERROGATING RACISM: Toward an Antiracist Anthropology
Mullings, L. (2005) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093435 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
10. ADVERTISING AS A SITE OF LANGUAGE CONTACT
Piller, I. (2003) · Annual Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1017/s0267190503000254 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Language-in-healthcare policy, interaction patterns, and unequal care on the U.S.-Mexico border
Martínez, G. A. (2008) · Language Policy · doi:10.1007/s10993-008-9110-y · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Hall, K., Goldstein, D. M., & Ingram, M. B. (2016) · Hau Journal of Ethnographic Theory · doi:10.14318/hau6.2.009 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
And the Injun goes “How!”: Representations of American Indian English in white public space
Meek, B. A. (2006) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404506060040 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Teaching science as a language: A “content‐first” approach to science teaching
Brown, B. A., & Ryoo, K. (2008) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20255 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Brock, A. (2020) · doi:10.18574/9781479811908 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Brown, B. A. (2005) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20096 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
The Oxford Handbook of Evidentiality
Aikhenvald, A. Y. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198759515.001.0001 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of Discourse Studies
Jaworska, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108348195 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Heritage Language Education and Identity in the United States
Leeman, J. (2015) · Annual Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1017/s0267190514000245 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“Instead, Spanish is often portrayed negatively and is discursively linked to unauthorized immigration, and it serves as a key ideological symbol of a racialized minority (Hill, 1999, 2008; Leeman, 2013).”
BackgroundThe Whens and Wheres — As Well As Hows — of Ethnolinguistic Recognition
Silverstein, M. C. (2003) · Public Culture · doi:10.1215/08992363-15-3-531 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Mock Ebonics: Linguistic racism in parodies of Ebonics on the Internet
Ronkin, M., & Karn, H. E. (1999) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/1467-9481.00083 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Writing with an Accent: Orthographic Practice, Emblems, and Traces on Facebook
Hillewaert, S. M. (2015) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12079 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
A critique of the principle of error correction as a theory of social change
Lewis, M. C. (2018) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404518000258 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“—that encourage researchers to investigate, not assume, connections between racism, social change, and representations of language (Hill 1998:681).”
BackgroundEl Español de los Estados Unidos
Escobar, A. M., & Potowski, K. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091326 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Barrett, R. (2006) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404506060088 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“In Mock Spanish, Anglo speakers incorporate Spanish words into otherwise English discourse to “create a jocular or pejorative ‘key’” (Hill 1998:682).”
BackgroundInfluentialChun, E. W. (2001) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlin.2001.11.1.52 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“Crossover AAVE may semiotically function in ways that parallel Mock Spanish given that they are both linguistic—and therefore cultural—appropriations from racially marginalized groups in the United States.”
BackgroundInfluentialIdeologies of legitimate mockery
Chun, E. W. (2015) · Pragmatics Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) · doi:10.1075/prag.14.2-3.10chu · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“7 As noted by Hill (1998), such stereotyping language practices not only typically derogate the speakers who are mocked, but also simultaneously elevate the personas of those who do the mocking.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPhilip, T. M., Olivares-Pasillas, M. C., & Rocha, J. (2016) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2016.1210418 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“Students replacing school computer display backgrounds with images of Malcolm X (as we observed in one classroom) or Whites using “mock Spanish” (Hill, 1998) are thus fundamentally racial-ideological micro-contestations since they build on societally available racial discourses to reinscribe or challenge locally salie…”
MethodToward a Description of African American Vernacular English Dialect Regions Using “Black Twitter”
Jones, T. (2015) · American Speech · doi:10.1215/00031283-3442117 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Introducing LangCrit: Critical Language and Race Theory
Crump, A. (2014) · Critical Inquiry in Language Studies · doi:10.1080/15427587.2014.936243 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“What the work of Sarkar, Low, andWiner (2007), Hill (2010), and Matsuda (1991, 1996) indicate is that understandings of language, identity, and belonging need to be informed by a theoretical lens that resists masking issues of race behind issues of language.”
BackgroundIdeologies of legitimate mockery: Margaret Cho's revoicings of mock Asian
Chun, E. W. (2004) · Pragmatics Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Rosa, J. (2015) · Language & Communication · doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2015.10.007 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Reconstructing the Status Quo: Linguistic Interaction in a Dual-Language School
Fitts, S. (2006) · Bilingual Research Journal · doi:10.1080/15235882.2006.10162880 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
New Immigrant Youth Interpreting in White Public Space
Reynolds, J. F., & Orellana, M. F. (2009) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01114.x · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Clancy, K. B. H., & Davis, J. L. (2019) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011133 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Intertextuality as Source and Evidence for Indirect Indexical Meanings
Hill, J. H. (2005) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlin.2005.15.1.113 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning to Play, Playing to Learn: FL Learners as Multicompetent Language Users
Pomerantz, A., & BELL, N. D. (2007) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amm044 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“We thank Janet Maybin, Joan Swann, Guy Cook, and three anonymous reviewers for their insightful and generous comments.”
BackgroundShankar, S. (2008) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1395.2008.00022.x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“Rosina Lippi-Green (1997) illustrates how “standard” ways of speaking are unmarked, normalizing, and powerful in their ability to relegate other varieties as unpreferred (see also Hill 1998; Woolard 1989).”
BackgroundRosa, J., & Díaz, V. (2019) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.13353 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Microaggressions and the reproduction of social inequalities in medical encounters in Mexico
Smith‐Oka, V. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.039 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Androcentric Reporting of Gender Differences in APA Journals: 1965–2004
Hegarty, P. V., & Buechel, C. (2006) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.10.4.377 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“…2002; McIntosh, 1998; Powell, Branscombe, & Schmitt, 2005), men (Bem, 1993; De Beauvoir, 1949; Edley & Wetherell, 1995), English-language speakers (Hill, 1999), and heterosexuals (Bricknell, 2000; Hegarty, Pratto, & Lemieux, 2004; Sedgwick, 1990) all call attention to the low salience of group…”
A Social Justice Theory of Active Equality for Technical Communication
Colton, J. S., & Holmes, S. (2016) · Journal of Technical Writing and Communication · doi:10.1177/0047281616647803 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“…racism because they are not asked to interrogate their whiteness and that wiggers seem indistinguishable from “moth-eaten tokens of minstrelsy” (Hill, 1998, p. 688, quoted in Snell & McFarlane, 2016), a metaphor that characterizes Whites’ historic use of blackface to undermine the…”
BackgroundMethodAikhenvald, A. Y. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198759515.013.1 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Latin@s and the Intergenerational Continuity of Spanish: The Challenges of Curricularizing Language
Valdés, G. (2015) · International Multilingual Research Journal · doi:10.1080/19313152.2015.1086625 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“The ideological climate, as other scholars have indicated (e.g., Flores, 2013; Flores & Rosa, 2015; Hill, 1993a, 1993b, 1995, 1998; Rosa, in press; Urciuoli, 1996; 2010) is one in which negative views about Spanish and its speakers are deeply rooted.”
BackgroundIntroduction: acts of alterity
Hastings, A., & Manning, P. (2004) · Language & Communication · doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2004.07.001 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“This sort of figural voice is therefore to be classed with a wide variety of mocking imitations of foreigners and others (‘‘Mock Spanish,’’ for example ( Hill, 1998, 2001 )), stage and comic dialects, characterological speech defects (Mel Blancs renditions of the voices of Warner Brothers cartoon figures (Brody, 2001)…”
BackgroundToward an Anti‐Racist Linguistic Anthropology: An Indigenous Response to White Supremacy
Leonard, W. Y. (2021) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12319 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Covert Linguistic Racisms and the (Re‐)Production of White Supremacy
Kroskrity, P. V. (2021) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12307 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
E nglish and Globalization in I ndia: The Fractal Nature of Discourse
Proctor, L. M. (2014) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12056 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Language and sexuality in Spanish and English dating chats1
del‐Teso‐Craviotto, M. (2006) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2006.00288.x · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Youth Language, Gaul Sociability, and the New Indonesian Middle Class
Smith-Hefner, N. J. (2007) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlin.2007.17.2.184 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Forcing foreign sounds to approximate words in English, Eble argues, is for many college students a source of humor; at the same time it expresses an attitude which is basically anti-intellectual (See also Hill 1998 on “mock Spanish”).”
BackgroundAngermeyer, P. S. (2017) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404516001020 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“…of nonnative ungrammatical language use, ‘Google Hungarian’ also bears a partial resemblance to the phenomenon of Mock Spanish, first described by Hill (1998; 2008), in which White American English speakers use pseudo-Spanish phrases in ways that index negative stereotypes about Spanish…”
BackgroundLanguage and Migration to the United States
Dick, H. P. (2010) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145634 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Did you call in Mexican? The racial politics of Jay Leno immigrant jokes
Ana, O. S. (2009) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404508090027 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“The capability to impose social hierarchies and boundaries in the joke-telling setting parallels the social effects of Mock Spanish use (Hill 1998 ).”
BackgroundRampton, B. (1999) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlin.1999.9.1-2.54 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Introduction: White Noise: Bringing Language into Whiteness Studies
Trechter, S., & Bucholtz, M. (2001) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlin.2001.11.1.3 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Speaking like Asian immigrants
Chun, E. W. (2015) · Pragmatics Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) · doi:10.1075/prag.19.1.02chu · Cited by 81 · see citing works
The reappropriation of tongzhi
Wong, A. (2005) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404505050281 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Racialization of the bilingual student in higher education: A case from the Peruvian Andes
Zavala, V. (2011) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2011.08.004 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Johanson, L. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198759515.013.24 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108887410 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
MAINTAINING WHITENESS: THE FEAR OF OTHERS AND NICENESS
Low, S. (2009) · Transforming Anthropology · doi:10.1111/j.1548-7466.2009.01047.x · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Beyond El Barrio: Everyday Life in Latina/o America
Pérez, G. M., Guridy, F. A., & Burgos, A. (2010) · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Code‐Switching, Identity, and Globalization
Hall, K., & Nilep, C. (2015) · The Handbook of Discourse Analysis · doi:10.1002/9781118584194.ch28 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Carter, P. M. (2014) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404514000049 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Mocking Spanish was a Language in Society 43:2 (2014) 233 common way for non-Latino students to talk about the language, and mock representations (Hill 1993, 1998, 2001, 2008) draw on stereotypes about Spanish phonology, including its “machine-gun” rhythm and simple consonant-vowel syllable…”
BackgroundSecuring the borders of English and Whiteness
Piller, I., Torsh, H. I., & Smith‐Khan, L. (2021) · Ethnicities · doi:10.1177/14687968211052610 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Hill, J. H. (2005) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-05871-3_5 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationLinguistic anthropology and sociocultural anthropology
Stasch, R. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139342872.030 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Where Do Evidentials Come From?
Friedman, V. A. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198759515.013.6 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Style, stance, and social meaning in mock white girl
Slobe, T. (2018) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s004740451800060x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Ventriloquation of the persona is a means of 556 Language in Society 47:4 (2018) positioning her as a cultural object that represents the normalization of racist encounters that girls of color experience in white public space (cf. Hill 1998).”
BackgroundJaworski, A., Thurlow, C., Lawson, S., & Ylänne‐McEwen, V. (2003) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658410308667063 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Sicoli, M. A. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9781118584194.ch5 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
The public life of white affects
Bucholtz, M. (2019) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/josl.12392 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Racial Microaggressions at Work: Reflections from Black African Professionals in Australia
Gatwiri, K. (2020) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcaa145 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Linguistic Magic Bullets in the Making of a Modernist Anthropology
Briggs, C. L. (2002) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1525/aa.2002.104.2.481 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Theorizing Linguistic Racisms from a Language Ideological Perspective
Kroskrity, P. V. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190845995.013.18 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Examining raciolinguistic struggles in institutional settings: A duoethnography
Escobar, C. F., & Herrera, L. J. P. (2022) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2022.101012 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Krause, E. L. (2001) · Cultural Anthropology · doi:10.1525/can.2001.16.4.576 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Fechter, A. (2005) · Ethnography · doi:10.1177/1466138105055662 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Rampton, B., Tusting, K., Maybin, J., & Barwell, R. (2004) · Cited by 59 · see citing works
On Saying It Right (Write): "Fix-Its" in the Foundations of Learning to Write
Dyson, A. H. (2006) · Research in the Teaching of English · doi:10.58680/rte20065994 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Sa’ar, A. (2006) · Signs · doi:10.1086/508501 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
McNamara, T. F. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108639606 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Hiramoto, M. (2009) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2009.00406.x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Introduction: The Trump Era as a Linguistic Emergency
McIntosh, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108887410.001 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Hearing What's Not Said and Missing What Is: Black Language in White Public Space
Alim, H. S. (2005) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470758434.ch12 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Sierra, S. (2018) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2018.09.007 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Dime con quién hablas, y te diré quién eres” : Linguistic (In)security and Latina/o Unity
Zentella, A. C. (2017) · doi:10.1002/9781405177603.ch3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Foreign languages are intrusive and Spanish, in particular, invades “white public space” (Hill 1999).”
BackgroundDisparate markets: Language, nation, and education in North India
LaDousa, C. (2005) · American Ethnologist · doi:10.1525/ae.2005.32.3.460 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“When ‘‘Junk Spanish’’ is found in the discourse of whites, it has the potential to mark them positively (Hill 1998).”
BackgroundDisciplining the Discipline: Anthropology and the Pursuit of Quality Education
González, N. E. (2004) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x033005017 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Given these disparate perspectives, we can apprehend that anthropology is heir to a contradictory legacy, claiming as intellectual ancestors “both the founders of scientific racism and important pioneers of the antiracist movement” (Hill, 1998, p. 680).”
BackgroundDo you speak Arabic? Managing axes of adequation and difference in pan-Arab talent programs
Schulthies, B. L. (2014) · Language & Communication · doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2014.10.010 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Pioneers, Settlers, Aliens, Exiles: The decolonisation of white identity in Zimbabwe
Fisher, J. L. (2010) · ANU Press eBooks · doi:10.26530/oapen_459443 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Armstrong-Fumero, F. (2009) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01138.x · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Like the narratives about the loss of “respect” that Hill (1998b) documented among Nahuatl speakers in central Mexico, nostalgia for the “loss” of an Imaginary Maya and other forms of traditional life often tends to reference a series of contemporary inequalities within indigenous-language…”
BackgroundVine Racial Comedy as Anti‐Hegemonic Humor: Linguistic Performance and Generic Innovation
Calhoun, K. (2019) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12206 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“At the same time that he is producing these incoherent utterances in mock AAL, his gestures and facial expressions become increasingly exaggerated, flapping his hands and arms up and down, winking, and contorting his mouth.”
BackgroundInfluentialLinguistic Human Rights and Mobility
Wee, L. (2007) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.2167/jmmd492.0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“See Hill (1998) and Leeman (2004) for some relevant discussion.”
BackgroundLanguage and Masculinities: History, Development, and Future
Lawson, R. (2020) · Annual Review of Linguistics · doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011650 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Krause, E. L., & Marchesi, M. (2007) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1525/aa.2007.109.2.350 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“These linguistic choices were not arbitrary: Couscous can be interpreted as a synecdoche for Muslims, pesto for Italians, and particularly those from the north, where fertility rates are especially low (see Hill 1998).”
BackgroundGraham, L. R. (2011) · American Ethnologist · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2010.01299.x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Pathway Towards Fluency: Using ‘disaggregate instruction’ to promote science literacy
Brown, B. A., Ryoo, K., & Rodriguez, J. (2009) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690903117921 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Collectively, these scholars describe language as a component of students’ identity and suggest that as students learn new languages, they must take on identities associated with those languages (Brown et al., 2005; Fordham, 1999; Hill, 1999).”
Background
- Authors
- Hill, J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hill, Jane H.
- ORCID
- Hill, Jane H.
- Venue
- American Anthropologist
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1998-09
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 680-689
- ISSN
- 0002-7294 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-1433
- OpenAlex
- W1985344939
- Cited by
- 972
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 31.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Anthropologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Linguistic and Sociocultural Studies
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Linguistic Variation and Morphology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Discourse, Communication Strategies
- Keywords
- African Americans, African American English, whiteness, indexicality, code-mixing, semiotics of language
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