Cited by 173Sexual Differentiation and DisordersNeuroendocrine regulation and behaviorGenetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities

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Prenatal testosterone and gender-related behaviour

Hines, Melissa·2006·European Journal of Endocrinology

DOI 10.1530/eje.1.02236

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Abstract

Testosterone plays an important role in mammalian brain development. In neural regions with appropriate receptors testosterone, or its metabolites, influences patterns of cell death and survival, neural connectivity and neurochemical characterization. Consequently, testosterone exposure during critical periods of early development produces permanent behavioural changes. In humans, affected behaviours include childhood play behaviour, sexual orientation, core gender identity and other characteristics that show sex differences (i.e. differ on average between males and females). These influences have been demonstrated primarily in individuals who experienced marked prenatal hormone abnormalities and associated ambiguities of genital development (e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia). However, there is also evidence that testosterone works within the normal range to make some individuals within each sex more sex-typical than others. The size of testosterone-related influences, and perhaps even their existence, varies from one sex-typed characteristic to another. For instance: prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone has a substantial influence on sex-typical play behaviour, including sex-typed toy preferences, whereas influences on core gender identify and sexual orientation are less dramatic. In addition: there appears to be little or no influence of prenatal testosterone on mental rotations ability, although mental rotations ability shows a marked sex difference. These findings have implications for basic understanding of the role of testosterone in normative gender development, as well as for the clinical management of individuals with disorders of sex development (formerly called intersex syndromes).

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Authors: Hines, M.
Affiliations: City, University of London (GB)
Corresponding author: Hines, Melissa
ORCID: Hines, Melissa
Venue: European Journal of Endocrinology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2006-11
Volume: 155
Issue: suppl_1
Pages: S115-S121
ISSN: 0804-4643 (ISSN-L)
1479-683X
DOI: 10.1530/eje.1.02236
OpenAlex: W2153701608
Cited by: 173
References: 36
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
FWCI: 3.26
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: European Journal of Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Wellcome Trust
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD2454)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
Keywords: prenatal testosterone, sex differences, gender identity, sexual orientation, toy preferences, mental rotation, brain development, disorders of sex development, congenital adrenal hyperplasia
MeSH terms: Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital, Animals, Female, Humans, Macaca mulatta, Male, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Sexual Behavior, Sex Characteristics, Testosterone

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Prenatal testosterone and gender-related behaviour

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