Robust sex differences in functional brain connectivity are present in utero
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Sex-based differences in brain structure and function are observable throughout development and are thought to contribute to differences in behavior, cognition, and the presentation of neurodevelopmental disorders. Using multiple support vector machine (SVM) models as a data-driven approach to assess sex differences, we sought to identify regions exhibiting sex-dependent differences in functional connectivity and determine whether they were robust and sufficiently reliable to classify sex even prior to birth. To accomplish this, we used a sample of 110 human fetal resting state fMRI scans from 95 fetuses, performed between 19 and 40 gestational weeks. Functional brain connectivity patterns classified fetal sex with 73% accuracy. Across SVM models, we identified features (functional connections) that reliably differentiated fetal sex. Highly consistent predictors included connections in the somatomotor and frontal areas alongside the hippocampus, cerebellum, and basal ganglia. Moreover, high consistency features also implicated a greater magnitude of cross-region connections in females, while male weighted features were predominately within anatomically bounded regions. Our findings indicate that these differences, which have been observed later in childhood, are present and reliably detectable even before birth. These results show that sex differences arise before birth in a manner that is consistent and reliable enough to be highly identifiable.
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Connections involving the somatomotor regions, frontal cortices, and basal ganglia reliably predict biologic sex.
“Connections involving the somatomotor regions, frontal cortices, and basal ganglia have also been shown to reliably predict biologic sex [68].”
From Brain structural and functional outcomes in the offspring of women experiencing psychological distress during pregnancy (2024) · cites this paper as [68]
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Wu, Y., De Asis-Cruz, J., & Limperopoulos, C. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02449-0 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Connections involving the somatomotor regions, frontal cortices, and basal ganglia have also been shown to reliably predict biologic sex [68].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
- Authors
- Cook, K. M., De Asis-Cruz, J., Lopez, C., Quistorff, J., Kapse, K., Andersen, N., Vezina, G., & Limperopoulos, C.
- Affiliations
- Children's National (US)
- Developing Brain Institute , Children’s National, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington DC 20010 , USA
- Division of Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology , Children’s National, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington DC 20010 , USA
- Corresponding author
- Limperopoulos, Catherine
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cerebral Cortex
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2022-05-31
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2441-2454
- ISSN
- 1047-3211 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2199
- PMC
- PMC10016060
- OpenAlex
- W4281722012
- Cited by
- 31
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 3.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cerebral Cortex (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (MOP-81116)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (T32-HD098066)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01-HL116585)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Keywords
- sex differences, fetal brain, brain functional connectivity, sex classification, fetal sex determination, resting-state fMRI, somatomotor cortex, frontal cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, fetal development, neurodevelopmental disorders
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Sex Characteristics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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