Interplay between the immune system and adipose tissue in obesity
Open accessAbstract
Obesity is a major risk factor for metabolic disease, with white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation emerging as a key underlying pathology. Alongside its major role in energy storage, WAT is an important endocrine organ, producing many bioactive molecules, termed adipokines, which not only serve as regulators of systemic metabolism, but also possess immunoregulatory properties. Furthermore, WAT contains a unique immune cell repertoire, including an accumulation of leukocytes that are rare in other locations. These include alternatively activated macrophages, invariant natural killer T cells, and regulatory T cells. Disruption of resident adipose leukocyte homeostasis contributes to obesity-associated inflammation and consequent metabolic disorder. Despite many recent advances in this new field of immuno-metabolism, fundamental questions of why and how inflammation arises as obesity develops are not yet fully understood. Exploring the distinct immune system of adipose tissue is fundamental to our understanding of the endocrine as well as immune systems. In this review, we discuss the roles of adipose tissue leukocytes in the transition to obesity and progression of inflammation and highlight potential anti-inflammatory therapies for combating obesity-related pathology.
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Obesity promotes inflammatory pathways in visceral fat through adipocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia and the accumulation of immune cells including macrophages, mast cells, and T lymphocytes producing pro-inflammatory cytokines.
“Obesity promotes inflammatory pathways in visceral fat through adipocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia and the accumulation of immune cells including macrophages, mast cells, and T lymphocytes producing pro-inflammatory cytokines (148–150).”
From Health Consequences of Sarcopenic Obesity: A Narrative Review (2020) · cites this paper as [149]
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Francisco, V., Pino, J., González-Gay, M. Á., Mera, A., Lago, F., Gómez, R., Mobasheri, A., & Gualillo, O. (2018) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.14181 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“…main resident T cell population, secreted anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and IL-4) that polarize adipose tissue macrophages towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype (i.e. M2 or alternatively activated macrophages), thus maintaining a tolerogenic environment (Exley et al., 2014; Huh et al., 2014).”
InfluentialLouwen, F., Ritter, A., Kreis, N., & Yuan, J. (2018) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12679 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“Moreover, increased proinflammatory cytokines like IL-6 and TNF-α secreted by M1 macrophages in inflamed adipose tissue contribute directly to local and systemic inflammation (30).”
BackgroundAdipose Tissue Inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes
Kohlgruber, A. C., & Lynch, L. (2015) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-015-0670-x · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Self-citationNovel Approaches to Exploiting Invariant NKT Cells in Cancer Immunotherapy
Wolf, B. J., Choi, J. E., & Exley, M. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.00384 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“Adipose iNKT tend to make anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 and unlike other mature iNKT cells, lack PLZF (14, 15).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationNakajima, A., Nakatani, A., Hasegawa, S., Irie, J., Ozawa, K., Tsujimoto, G., Suganami, T., Itoh, H., & Kimura, I. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0179696 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Sarcopenia and Cognitive Function: Role of Myokines in Muscle Brain Cross-Talk
Scisciola, L., Fontanella, R. A., Surina, S., Cataldo, V., Paolisso, G., & Barbieri, M. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11020173 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Immune and non-immune functions of adipose tissue leukocytes
Trim, W. V., & Lynch, L. (2021) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-021-00635-7 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citationObesity and COVID-19: Molecular Mechanisms Linking Both Pandemics
Ritter, A., Kreis, N., Louwen, F., & Yuan, J. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21165793 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“Most of these hallmarks have direct or indirect negative impact on the well-balanced immune surveillance system leading to an impaired immune response, flawed chemotaxis, and deregulated immune cell differentiation [17].”
BackgroundRole of Magnesium in Oxidative Stress in Individuals with Obesity
Morais, J. B. S., Severo, J. S., dos Santos, L. R., Melo, S. R. D. S., Santos, R. D. O., de Oliveira, A. R. S., Cruz, K. J. C., & Marreiro, D. D. N. (2016) · Biological Trace Element Research · doi:10.1007/s12011-016-0793-1 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
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Effects of caloric restriction on the gut microbiome are linked with immune senescence
Sbierski‐Kind, J., Grenkowitz, S., Schlickeiser, S., Sandforth, A., Friedrich, M., Kunkel, D., Glauben, R., Brachs, S., Mai, K., Thürmer, A., et al. (2022) · Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s40168-022-01249-4 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Emerging Concepts Linking Obesity with the Hallmarks of Cancer
Donohoe, C. L., Lysaght, J., O'Sullivan, J. N., & Reynolds, J. V. (2016) · Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2016.08.004 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“Accumulation and conversion to classically activated M1macrophages in inflamed adipose tissue is associated with the production of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 6 (IL6) and TNF-/, contributing directly to local and systemic inflammation [64].”
Targeting white, brown and perivascular adipose tissue in atherosclerosis development
van Dam, A. D., Boon, M. R., Berbée, J. F. P., Rensen, P. C. N., & van Harmelen, V. (2017) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.03.051 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“WAT is infiltrated by several types of immune cells both under lean and obese conditions as recently reviewed (Exley et al., 2014; Grant and Dixit, 2015).”
BackgroundMechanisms of obesity-induced metabolic and vascular dysfunctions
Caldwell, R. W. (2019) · Frontiers in bioscience · doi:10.2741/4758 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Leptin is considered a pro-inflammatory adipokine since it induces production of ROS, TNF-alpha, and IL-6 by macrophages and monocytes, which in turn initiate the production of more leptin (77).”
InfluentialChemistry of Pterostilbene and Its Metabolic Effects
Kim, H., Seo, K., & YOKOYAMA, W. H. (2020) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00070 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Epicardial Fat: Physiological, Pathological, and Therapeutic Implications
Salazar, J. J., Luzardo, E., Mejías, J. C., Rojas, J., Ferreira, A. M., Rivas-Ríos, J. R., & Bermúdez, V. (2016) · Cardiology Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/2016/1291537 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Obesity is an inflammatory disease [11, 12] characterized by increase in the number and size of adipocytes, associated with progressive hypoxia, upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines, and chemotaxis of inflammatory cells.”
BackgroundMaternal obesity and sex-specific differences in placental pathology
Leon-Garcia, S., Roeder, H., Nelson, K. K., Liao, X., Pizzo, D. P., Laurent, L. C., Parast, M. M., & LaCoursiere, D. Y. (2015) · Placenta · doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2015.12.006 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“It is well known that obesity is associated with inflammation, particularly macrophage infiltration, in other tissues and organs, including adipose tissue [14,32].”
BackgroundInhibition of B Lymphopoiesis by Adipocytes and IL-1–Producing Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells
Kennedy, D. E., & Knight, K. L. (2015) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1500957 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Gut adaptation after metabolic surgery and its influences on the brain, liver and cancer
Sinclair, P., Brennan, D. J., & le Roux, C. W. (2018) · Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1038/s41575-018-0057-y · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Obesity: pathophysiology and therapeutic interventions
Kong, Y., Yang, H., Nie, R., Zhang, X., Zuo, F., Zhang, H., & Nian, X. (2025) · Molecular Biomedicine · doi:10.1186/s43556-025-00264-9 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Pro-inflammatory cytokines promote IR and cause detrimental lipid metabolism in peripheral tissues, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines attempt to preserve insulin sensitivity [91, 92].”
Ayuso, M., Fernández, A., Núñez, Y., Benítez, R., Isabel, B., Barragán, C., Fernández, A. I., Rey, A. I., Medrano, J. F. F., Cánovas, Á., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145162 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Immune system-related genes are also involved in numerous other biological processes, such as fat accumulation, closely associated with inflammation [96, 97].”
BackgroundGonçalves, T. E. D., Zimmermann, G. S., Figueiredo, L. C., de Souza, M., da Cruz, D. F., Bastos, M. F., da Silva, H. D. P., & Duarte, P. M. (2015) · Journal Of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/jcpe.12396 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Physical Exercise Positively Influences Breast Cancer Evolution
Adraskela, K., Veisaki, E., Koutsilieris, M., & Philippou, Α. (2017) · Clinical Breast Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.clbc.2017.05.003 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
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Type II NKT Cells in Inflammation, Autoimmunity, Microbial Immunity, and Cancer
Marrero, I., Ware, R., & Kumar, V. (2015) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2015.00316 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Both NKT cell subsets have been shown to be involved in adipose-tissue inflammation, diet-induced obesity, and glucose metabolism (43).”
BackgroundFriedenreich, C. M., Neilson, H. K., O’Reilly, R., Duha, A., Yasui, Y., Morielli, A. R., Adams, S. C., & Courneya, K. S. (2015) · JAMA Oncology · doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2015.2239 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Obesity: a perfect storm for carcinogenesis
Harris, B. H. L., Macaulay, V. M., Harris, D. A., Klenerman, P., Karpe, F., Lord, S., Harris, A. L., & Buffa, F. M. (2022) · Cancer and Metastasis Reviews · doi:10.1007/s10555-022-10046-2 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“TNFα and IFNγ are produced and the balance of the lymphoid population alters [27, 225].”
BackgroundMatar, D. B., Zhra, M., Nassar, W. K., Altemyatt, H., Naureen, A., Abotouk, N., Elahi, M. A., & Aljada, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2025.1592683 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Lastra, G., & Manrique, C. M. (2015) · Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1515/hmbci-2015-0010 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Although the initial descriptions of immunologic aggregates in fat tissue were made in the 19th century [7] the importance of adipose tissue as an immunologically active tissue has only gained interest over the last few decades.”
BackgroundModulation of the Leptin Receptor Mediates Tumor Growth and Migration of Pancreatic Cancer Cells
Mendonsa, A. M., Chalfant, M. C., Gorden, L. D., & VanSaun, M. N. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126686 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
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“7 A key component in metabolic in fl ammation is the NLRP3 in fl amma-some, a multi-protein danger-sensing complex that is thought to form the crossroads between metabolism and in fl ammation.”
Metabolic control and sex: A focus on inflammatory‐linked mediators
Henstridge, D. C., Abildgaard, J., Lindegaard, B., & Febbraio, M. A. (2019) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.14642 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Sex differences in human adipose tissue gene expression and genetic regulation involve adipogenesisPreprint
Anderson, W. D., Soh, J. Y., Innis, S. E., Dimanche, A., Ma, L., Langefeld, C. D., Comeau, M. E., Das, S. K., Schadt, E. E., Björkegren, J., et al. (2020) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.264614.120 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
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“Obesity triggers a cascade of metabolic dysregulation that contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes [30].”
BackgroundThe metabolic axis of macrophage and immune cell polarization
Hobson-Gutierrez, S., & Carmona‐Fontaine, C. (2018) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.034462 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“It has also become evident that the immune system has a central role in regulating whole-body metabolism (Buck et al., 2017; Exley et al., 2014; Man et al., 2017; Odegaard and Chawla, 2013).”
Zhang, Y., Yang, P., Cui, R., Zhang, M., Li, H., Qian, C., Sheng, C., Qu, S., & Bu, L. (2015) · International Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1155/2015/565760 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“[30, 31], and loss of this population of immune cells in mice model exacerbated diet-induced obesity and metabolic dysfunction [32].”
BackgroundVisceral Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, and Esophageal Adenocarcinoma
Elliott, J. A., & Reynolds, J. V. (2021) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2021.627270 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Other proposed pathways include lipotoxicity and consequent endoplasmic reticulum stress, toll-like receptor activation and impaired oxygenation (73).”
BackgroundCornò, M. D., D’Archivio, M., Conti, L., Scazzocchio, B., Varı́, R., Donninelli, G., Varano, B., Giammarioli, S., Meo, S. D., Silecchia, G., et al. (2016) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.10998 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Disruption of the cross-talk between adipocytes and resident leukocytes contributes to obesity-associated lowgrade chronic inflammation, a primary cause of obesityinduced pathologies [7].”
BackgroundMurakami, Y., Ojima‐Kato, T., Saburi, W., Mori, H., Matsui, H., Tanabe, S., & Suzuki, T. (2015) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114515003505 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“A growing body of evidence supports the notion that obesity and metabolic disorders are characterised by a chronic state of low-grade inflammation with pro-inflammatory macrophage infiltration into white adipose tissue((29,30)).”
T, B, and NKT Cells in Systemic Inflammation in Obstructive Sleep Apnoea
Domagala-Kulawik, J. J., Osińska, I., Piechuta, A., Bielicki, P., & Skirecki, T. (2015) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2015/161579 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Amini, M., Bashirova, D., Prins, B. P., Corpeleijn, E., Study, L. C., Bruinenberg, M., Franke, L., van der Harst, P., Navis, G. J., Wolffenbuttel, B. H. R., et al. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168480 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“chemokines produced by adipose tissue)[69].”
Parit, R., & Jayavel, S. (2021) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.173899 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The Role of Tissue-resident γδ T Cells in Stress Surveillance and Tissue Maintenance
Johnson, M. D., Witherden, D. A., & Havran, W. L. (2020) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells9030686 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Lymphocytes account for 10-15% of the stromal-vascular fraction and include B cells, αβ T cells, invariant natural killer (iNKT) cells, T regulatory (Treg) cells, and γδ T cells [137,138].”
BackgroundBarthelemy, J., Bogard, G., & Wolowczuk, I. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1083191 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Similarly, ATs (mostly described for WAT) are now defined as proper immune organs (3, 11, 103, 104).”
BackgroundRegulatory T Cells in Kidney Transplantation: New Directions?
Braza, F., Durand, M., Degauque, N., & Brouard, S. (2015) · American Journal of Transplantation · doi:10.1111/ajt.13395 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The therapeutic and prognostic implications of immunobiology in colorectal cancer: a review
Zaborowski, A. M., Winter, D. C., & Lynch, L. (2021) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/s41416-021-01475-x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Adipose tissue harbours a unique collection of innate lymphoid cells consisting of natural killer (NK) cells and a population of non-MHC restricted ‘unconventional’ T cells including invariant NKT (iNKT) cells, yδ T cells and mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, that are key to maintaining immune homeostasis […”
BackgroundSelf-citationGPER/GPR30 Knockout Mice: Effects of GPER on Metabolism
Sharma, G., & Prossnitz, E. R. (2015) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3127-9_38 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Furthermore, adipose tissue in the obese exhibits increased leukocyte infiltration that in turn alters the cytokine profiles of the macrophages/adipocytes giving rise to a pro-inflammatory phenotype (27).”
BackgroundMolina, N., Bolin, A. P., & Otton, R. (2015) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2015.08.011 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Fuggetta, M. P., Zonfrillo, M., Villivà, C., Bonmassar, E., & Ravagnan, G. (2019) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2019/1515621 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“The crosstalk betweenmacrophages and adipocytesmaintains a vicious cycle that sustains adipose tissue inflammation [6].”
BackgroundConsiderations for dosing immunoglobulin in obese patients
Hodkinson, J. P. (2017) · Clinical & Experimental Immunology · doi:10.1111/cei.12955 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Ritter, A., Louwen, F., & Yuan, J. (2018) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12716 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Juçara pulp supplementation improves glucose tolerance in mice
Oyama, L. M., da Silva, F. P., Carnier, J., de Miranda, D. A., Santamarina, A. B., Ribeiro, E. B., do Nascimento, C. M. O., & de Rosso, V. V. (2016) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/s13098-015-0122-4 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Das, S., Mukhuty, A., Mullen, G. P., & Rudolph, M. C. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25126681 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Kouidhi, S., Noman, M. Z., Kiéda, C., Elgaaïed, A. B., & Chouaı̈b, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00114 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“The second group comprises anti-inflammatory cells [M2 macrophages, regulatory CD4 T cells (Tregs), Th2 CD4 T cells, eosinophils, Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells], which produce IL-10, IL-4, or IL-13, and drive Th2 response (15, 95).”
BackgroundA vicious circle in chronic lymphoedema pathophysiology? An adipocentric view
Cucchi, F., Rossmeislová, L., Simonsen, L., Jensen, M. R., & Bülow, J. (2017) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12565 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“In obesity, hypertrophy of adipocytes results in their metabolic and subsequently immunological dysfunction (38,39) that is probably initiated by increased metabolite processing connected with higher reactive oxygen species production and chronic endoplasmic reticulum stress or by hypoxia (14,28,38,40).”
BackgroundMuscle-dependent regulation of adipose tissue function in long-lived growth hormone-mutant mice
Li, X., Frazier, J., Spahiu, E., McPherson, M., & Miller, R. A. (2020) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.103380 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Adipose tissue also plays an important role as an immuno-regulatory organ, influencing the activity of macrophages, T cells, B cells, mast cells, dendritic cells and neutrophils [24].”
Backgroundvan Eijkeren, R. J., Krabbe, O., Boes, M. L., Schipper, H. S., & Kalkhoven, E. (2017) · Immunology · doi:10.1111/imm.12839 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Kim, J., Shin, S., & Kwon, E. (2023) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.202200729 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Cardiovascular disease predictors and adipose tissue macrophage polarization: Is there a link?
Lesná, I. K., Petráš, M., Čejková, S., Králová, A., Froněk, J., Janoušek, L., Thieme, F., Tyll, T., & Poledne, R. (2017) · European Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1177/2047487317743355 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Role of Circadian Transcription Factor Rev-Erb in Metabolism and Tissue Fibrosis
Raza, G. S., Sodum, N., Kaya, Y., & Herzig, K. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232112954 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The association of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and atrial fibrillation: a review
Käräjämäki, A. J., Hukkanen, J., & Ukkola, O. H. (2018) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2018.1492147 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Crosstalk between macrophages and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) in diseases
Yin, G., Zhao, C., & Pei, W. (2022) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108937 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Muscogiuri, G., Bettini, S., Boschetti, M., Barrea, L., Savastano, S., & Colao, A. (2022) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-022-01111-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“resulting in impaired immune response, defective chemotaxis, and deregulated immune cell differentiation [18].”
BackgroundLesná, I. K., Čejková, S., Králová, A., Froněk, J., Petráš, M., Sekerková, A., Thieme, F., Janoušek, L., & Poledne, R. (2017) · Nutrition and Diabetes · doi:10.1038/nutd.2017.15 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Pecoraro, A., Nigro, E., Polito, R., Monaco, M. L., Scudiero, O., Mormile, I., Marcelli, A. C., Capasso, M., Habetswallner, F., Genovese, A., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.00895 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Do flavanols-rich natural products relieve obesity-related insulin resistance?
Engin, A. B., Tsatsakis, A. M., Tsoukalas, D., & Engin, A. (2017) · Food and Chemical Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.fct.2017.12.055 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Impairment in the local leukocyte homeostasis takes part in the obesity-related inflammation and associated metabolic disorders (Exley et al., 2014).”
BackgroundAdipocytes harbor a glucosylceramide biosynthesis pathway involved in iNKT cell activation
Rakhshandehroo, M., van Eijkeren, R. J., Gabriel, T. L., de Haar, C. G., Gijzel, S. M. W., Hamers, N., Ferraz, M. J., Aerts, J. M. F. G., Schipper, H. S., van Eijk, M., et al. (2019) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids · doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.04.016 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Adipose tissue (AT), a site where the immune system and metabolic pathways intersect, undergoes marked changes during the progression of obesity [1,2].”
BackgroundSbierski‐Kind, J., Mai, K., Kath, J., Jurisch, A., Streitz, M., Kuchenbecker, L., Babel, N., Nienen, M., Jürchott, K., Spranger, L., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.2000108 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“mia, elevated triglycerides, and free fatty acids, seems to alter components of the immune system (9, 10).”
BackgroundT cell phenotypes associated with insulin resistance: results from the Berlin Aging Study II
Sbierski‐Kind, J., Goldeck, D., Buchmann, N., Spranger, J., Volk, H., Steinhagen‐Thiessen, E., Pawelec, G., Demuth, I., & Spira, D. (2020) · Immunity & Ageing · doi:10.1186/s12979-020-00211-y · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Inflammation and oxidative stress, the links between obesity and COVID-19: a narrative review
Moreno‐Fernández, J., Ochoa, J. J., Ojeda, M. L., Nogales, F., Carreras, O., & Díaz‐Castro, J. (2022) · Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/s13105-022-00887-4 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Lymphocytes present in AT could be the orchestrators of the inflammatory response of this tissue [26].”
BackgroundNutrient and immune sensing are obligate pathways in metabolism, immunity, and disease
Iyer, A., Brown, L., Whitehead, J. P., Prins, J. B., & Fairlie, D. P. (2015) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.15-271155 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Inflammation is normally defined as an acute physiologic response to infection or injury, involving coordination of many complex signals in distinct cells and organ systems to identify and eliminate the source of infection and to repair tissue injury (6).”
BackgroundKyung, D. S., Sung, H., Kim, Y. J., Kim, K., Cho, S. Y., Choi, J., Lee, Y.-H., Kim, I. Y., & Seong, J. K. (2017) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2017.297 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
de Sant’Ana, L. P., Ribeiro, D. J. S., Martins, A. M. A., dos Santos, F. N., Corrêa, R., Almeida, R. D. N., Eberlin, M. N., Maurice, C. F., & Magalhães, K. G. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02926 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The characteristic inflammatory status in obesity triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and proinflammatory fatty acids (10).”
BackgroundSatoh, M., & Iwabuchi, K. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.01314 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“1+TCRβ+ population in AT was activated upon consumption of an HFD and contained more CD8+ but fewer CD4−CD8− subsets in Jα18 KO (referred here after as Jα281 KO) (25) mice, which differed from observations in either WT or CD1d KO mice; (2) WT mice harbored more noniNKT (=vNKT) cells in AT; and (3) hepatic mononuclea…”
BackgroundResultGermain, N., Viltart, O., Loyens, A., Bruchet, C., Nadin, K., Wolowczuk, I., Estour, B., & Galusca, B. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161890 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“This result can be added within the complex immuno-metabolic profile characterizing obesity [38].”
Backgroundn-3 PUFA and obesity: from peripheral tissues to the central nervous system
de Mello, A. H., Uberti, M. F., de Farias, B. X., de Souza, N. A. R., & Rezin, G. T. (2018) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114518000429 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“This tissue produces many bioactive molecules, such as cytokines (when secreted by adipose tissue, the cytokines can be called adipokines or adipocytokines), which not only serve as regulators of systemic metabolism but also have immunoregulatory properties((3,56,57)).”
BackgroundRole of NKT cells in cancer immunotherapy—from bench to bed
Bayatipoor, H., Mehdizadeh, S., Jafarpour, R., Shojaei, Z., Pashangzadeh, S., & Motallebnezhad, M. (2022) · Medical Oncology · doi:10.1007/s12032-022-01888-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“This subset secretes anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 and does not have Plzf, unlike other mature iNKT cells [64, 65].”
BackgroundLatteri, S., Sofia, M., Puleo, S., Vincenzo, A. D., Cinti, S., & Castorina, S. (2023) · Langenbeck s Archives of Surgery · doi:10.1007/s00423-023-02821-8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“WAT, producing adipokines, growth factors, enzymes and active immune cells such as macrophages and T cells, takes part in the progression of inflammation in obesity [35].”
BackgroundBeckmann, P. J., & Largaespada, D. A. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21031172 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Adipose tissue also hosts many immune cells which are significantly altered in the context of obesity [156,157].”
BackgroundAdipose tissue macrophage heterogeneity in the single-cell genomics era
Kang, H., & Lee, J. (2024) · Molecules and Cells · doi:10.1016/j.mocell.2024.100031 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Willemsen, A. C. H., Moor, N. D., Dessel, J. V., Baijens, L. W. J., Bila, M., Hauben, E. I., van den Hout, M. F. C. M., Poorten, V. V., Hoeben, A., Clément, P. M., et al. (2022) · Cancer Medicine · doi:10.1002/cam4.5522 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“First line palliative systemic therapy 40 (41) 28 (44) 12 (35) 0.”
Background
- Authors
- Exley, M. A., Hand, L., O'Shea, D., & Lynch, L.
- Affiliations
- University College Dublin (IE)
- Venue
- Journal of Endocrinology
- Publisher
- Bioscientifica
- Published
- 2014-09-16
- Volume
- 223
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- R41-R48
- ISSN
- 0022-0795 (ISSN-L)
- 1479-6805
- OpenAlex
- W2145456795
- Cited by
- 242
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 35
- FWCI
- 3.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (P01CA017094, CA017094)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Adipose Tissue and Metabolism
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Disease and Adiposity
- Keywords
- obesity, white adipose tissue, adipose tissue inflammation, adipokines, M2 macrophages, invariant natural killer T cells, regulatory T cells, metabolic disorders, anti-inflammatory therapy
- MeSH terms
- Adipose Tissue, Animals, Eosinophils, Humans, Immune System, Inflammation, Lymphocytes, Macrophages, Obesity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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