Reading Books and Reading Minds: Differential Effects of Wonder and The Crossover on Empathy and Theory of Mind

May combine two claims.

The increase in Perspective Taking after reading Wonder replicates our previous study, even though the current sample was much smaller.

“The increase in Perspective Taking after reading Wonder replicates our previous study (Guarisco & Freeman, 2015), even though the current sample was much smaller.”

• cites Guarisco & Freeman, 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Chinese college students recalled nonfiction better after reading it on paper than on a computer screen, with electronic tablets intermediate between the two; however, recall was higher in more experienced tablet users.

“Chinese college students recalled nonfiction better after reading it on paper than on a computer screen, with electronic tablets intermediate between the two; however, recall was higher in more experienced tablet users (Chen et al., 2014).”

• cites Chen et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Participants (p. 5) and Reading materials (p. 6) sections describe Chinese college students reading expository texts. The Discussion (p. 8) reports tablet scores between paper and computer scores, while the Results (p. 7) find higher summarization scores among highly familiar tablet users. But the paper measured comprehension through multiple-choice questions and summaries, not recall as such; only the paper–computer difference on multiple-choice comprehension was statistically significant. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Classroom activities presumably encouraged extended and deeper reflection about the text, which may have helped psychosocial changes develop and persist.

“Classroom activities presumably encouraged extended and deeper reflection about the text, which may have helped psychosocial changes develop and persist (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013).”

• cites Bal & Veltkamp, 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction’s “Sleeper Effects of Fiction on Outcomes” section proposes that time to rethink and relive a story can allow changes in empathy to emerge. The General Discussion likewise describes reflection during an incubation period. Neither passage addresses classroom activities or shows that they encouraged deeper reflection, so that part of the attributed explanation is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Mental transport into fiction is necessary for social benefits.

“Since mental transport into fiction is necessary for social benefits (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013;Johnson 2012;Johnson et al., 2013a), our Fantasy Scale results suggest that effects of fiction could depend on what reading format students use, or anticipate using.”

• cites Bal & Veltkamp, 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction proposes that fiction enhances empathy only when readers are emotionally transported, and the Conclusion reports that low transportation was related to lower empathy while high transportation might be related to higher empathy (page unavailable). This supports the claim for empathy, but the paper does not establish that transportation is necessary for social benefits generally. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Johnson 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Johnson et al., 2013aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The two books had different effects, and both gender and book format modulated the effect of reading.

“However, the two books had different effects, and both gender and book format modulated the effect of reading.”

May combine two claims.

For students who read The Crossover, the increase in faux pas scores was smaller (20.8%) than for Wonder (32.98%) and was restricted to girls.

“For students who read The Crossover, the increase in faux pas scores was smaller (20.8% compared to Wonder's 32.98%) and restricted to girls (Fig 3b).”

• Also stated in: § CONCLUSIONS · plain

  “For The Crossover, the increase was smaller and restricted to girls.”

• Also stated in: § Additional information · hedged

  “For students reading The Crossover, the increase in faux pas detection bordered on significance and was restricted to girls.”

May combine two claims.

Girls continued to have higher Fantasy Scale scores with traditional print, while boys had higher scores with iPads.

“Fantasy Scale scores did not change significantly post-unit, but girls continued to have higher scores with traditional print, while boys had higher scores with iPads.”

May combine two claims.

Neither gender nor reading format made a difference in the effect of The Crossover unit on Empathic Concern.

“Neither gender nor reading format made a difference in the effect of The Crossover unit on Empathic Concern.”

May combine two claims.

Boys' Perspective-Taking scores were unchanged after completing the Crossover unit, while girls' trended downward slightly.

“Boys' Perspective-Taking scores were unchanged after completing the Crossover unit, while girls' trended downward slightly (Fig 2c).”

May combine two claims.

Even though boys felt more mentally engaged when using iPads, they declined in sensitivity to facial expressions.

“Thus, even though boys felt more mentally engaged when using iPads, they declined in sensitivity to facial expressions.”

May combine two claims.

Scores on faux pas questions, but not control questions, increased significantly after the Wonder unit.

“Scores on the faux pas, but not control questions, increased significantly after the Wonder unit (Fig 3a).”

• Also stated in: § Additional information · hedged

  “Scores on faux pas recognition questions, but not control questions, increased in students who read Wonder, suggesting that this academic unit specifically increased the ability to detect social gaffes caused by missing or incorrect information.”

• Also stated in: § CONCLUSIONS · plain

  “The ability to detect faux pas increased in both genders after reading Wonder.”

May combine two claims.

In the Crossover group, Eyes-C scores improved only in students reading print; students using iPads declined on this measure.

“In the Crossover group, Eyes-C scores improved only in the students reading print; students using iPads actually declined on this measure (Fig 3c).”

• Also stated in: § CONCLUSIONS · plain

  “For The Crossover, this ability increased in students who read the book in print, but decreased in students who used iPads.”

• Also stated in: § Additional information · plain

  “Those reading print form improved in their ability to interpret emotions from pictures of eyes, while those using iPads went down on that measure.”

May combine two claims.

Baseline Fantasy Scale scores were similar for both book groups, but depended on both gender and the format that the students anticipated reading.

“Baseline Fantasy Scale scores were similar for both book groups, but depended on both gender and the format that the students anticipated reading.”

May combine two claims.

Perspective Taking's failure to increase in the Crossover readers - and even slight decline (3.6%) in girls - may initially seem puzzling.

“Therefore, Perspective Taking's failure to increase in the Crossover readers -and even slight decline (3.6%) in girls (Fig 2c.)-may initially seem puzzling.”

May combine two claims.

Changes in faux pas scores after reading Wonder were the same in both genders and with both reading formats.

“Changes after reading were the same in both genders and with both reading formats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Small group discussions on socioeconomic class were superficial, but students were more open to sharing in the whole class with the teacher facilitating.

“While the small group discussions on this topic were superficial, students were much more open to sharing in the whole class, with the teacher facilitating.”

May combine two claims.

The slight decrease in girls' Perspective Taking after reading The Crossover was offset by gains in Empathic Concern comparable to the boys' and trends in improved faux pas detection that boys did not show.

“The slight decrease in girls' Perspective Taking was offset by gains in Empathic Concern that were comparable to the boys', and trends in improved faux pas detection that boys did not show (Fig. 3b).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The majority of students who did not choose The Crossover for their novel study subsequently read it independently, largely because the book generated positive buzz.

“The majority of the students who did not choose The Crossover for their novel study subsequently read it independently, in large part because the book generated so much positive buzz.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

During group work, students re-read the section in which a police officer pulls over Josh's father, and Josh is clearly nervous that the situation could escalate.

“During group work, students re-read the section in which a police officer pulls over Josh's father, and Josh is clearly nervous that the situation could escalate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

While completing their character-in-a-bag projects, several Caucasian students did not realize that the protagonists were African-American.

“While completing their character-in-a-bag projects, several Caucasian students did not realize that the protagonists were African-American.”

May combine two claims.

Students showed increases in both empathy and theory of mind after the unit.

“Students showed increases in both empathy and theory of mind after the unit, suggesting that these two young adult books have social benefits similar to literary fiction for adults.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Understanding the role of class conflict in Jack's character development required frank discussion of socioeconomic class and how it feels to be surrounded by students with lavish lifestyles.

“Understanding the role of class conflict in Jack's character development required frank discussion of socioeconomic class and how it feels to be surrounded by students with lavish lifestyles.”

May combine two claims.

Specific effects depended on the book: Wonder was associated with higher Perspective Taking, and The Crossover with higher Empathic Concern.

“Specific effects depended on the book, with Wonder associated with higher Perspective Taking and The Crossover with higher Empathic Concern.”

• Also stated in: § Additional information · plain

  “For students who read Wonder, only Perspective Taking increased after the unit.”

May combine two claims.

All changes in empathy and theory of mind occurred over a 5-week period and were present a week after reading was complete.

“All changes in empathy and theory of mind occurred over a 5-week period and were present a week after reading was complete.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Groups assigned to follow the twins' mother struggled to find relevant quotes and items to include in their character bag.

“Groups assigned to follow the twins' mother struggled to find relevant quotes and items to include in their character bag.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students were eager to tackle the conversation about socioeconomic class, mentioning extravagant birthday parties and international travel.

“Surprisingly, students were eager to tackle this conversation, mentioning extravagant birthday parties and international travel.”

May combine two claims.

Girls had significantly higher baseline scores than boys in Empathic Concern and Perspective Taking, but not in the other four measures.

“Girls had significantly higher baseline scores than boys in Empathic Concern and Perspective Taking, but not in the other four measures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most students did not realize the significance of the police officer pulling over Josh's father.

“Most students did not realize the significance of this seemingly minor detail.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There was no relationship between gender and book choice.

“There was no relationship between gender and book choice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Losing track of place and awkwardness could have reduced connection to the narrative in our readers.

“Both effects could have reduced connection to the narrative in our readers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Because of the low number of minority participants, we did not quantify effects of race.

“Because of the low number of minority participants, we did not quantify effects of race.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test for Children (Eyes-C) is a well-validated theory of mind test for children that measures the ability to infer emotional state from a picture of the eyes.

“This is a wellvalidated theory of mind test for children that measures the ability to infer emotional state from a picture of the eyes (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”

• cites Baron-Cohen et al., 2001Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

An alternate explanation is that the stronger boy and weaker girl readers were placed, by chance, in the digital group, and that the stronger readers are also more caught up in fiction.

“An alternate explanation is that the stronger boy and weaker girl readers were placed, by chance, in the digital group, and that the stronger readers are also more caught up in fiction.”

May combine two claims.

Young adult fiction is associated with improved social cognitive skills, but effects depend on gender and reading format, as well as on the choice of individual book.

“Young adult fiction is associated with improved social cognitive skills, but effects depend on gender and reading format, as well as on the choice of individual book.”

May combine two claims.

Mangen and Kuiken (2014) also found that even experienced iPad readers were more likely to lose track of their place in the text and to report awkwardness when using the device.

“Mangen and Kuiken (2014) also found that even experienced iPad readers were more likely to lose track of their place in the text and to report awkwardness when using the device.”

• cites Mangen and Kuiken (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Faux Pas Test for Children (FP-C) requires recognizing faux pas: social errors caused by false belief.

“This theory of mind test requires recognizing faux pas: social errors caused by false belief (Baron-Cohen et al., 1999).”

• cites Baron-Cohen et al., 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is an established measure of empathy.

“The IRI is an established measure of empathy (Davis, 1981).”

• cites Davis, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A study of Chinese sixth graders reading science texts on electronic tablets found that girls recalled the material better and were more likely to use note-taking applications than boys; boys were more likely to be distracted by drawing and game tools.

“A study of Chinese sixth graders reading science texts on electronic tablets found that girls recalled the material better and were more likely to use note-taking applications than boys; boys were more likely to be distracted by drawing and game tools (Huang et al., 2013).”

• cites Huang et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Readers may respond differently to Wonder's narrative prose than to The Crossover's verse.

“Second, readers may respond differently to Wonder's narrative prose than to The Crossover's verse.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Margolin, Driscoll, Toland and Kegler (2013) found no difference between computer, e-reader, or print reading comprehension in U.S. college students who routinely used educational technology.

“Margolin, Driscoll, Toland and Kegler (2013) found no difference between computer, e-reader, or print reading comprehension in U.S. college students who routinely used educational technology.”

• cites Margolin, Driscoll, Toland and Kegler (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Scores on the adult version of the Eyes-C test show improvement after reading literary fiction.

“Scores on the adult version of this test show improvement after reading literary fiction (Kidd & Castano, 2013).”

• cites Kidd & Castano, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The increase in Eyes-C score with print and decrease with iPad suggests changes are related to the reading experience, because classroom activities were virtually identical for these two groups.

“Similarly, an increase in Eyes-C score with print and a decrease with iPad suggests changes are related to the reading experience; classroom activities would have been virtually identical for these two groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This increase in emotional projection is associated with higher willingness to help others, agreeableness, and openness.

“While this increase is associated with higher willingness to help others, agreeableness, and openness, this fondness for fantasy is also associated with social anxiety and emotional instability in teens (Hawk et al., 2013).”

• cites Hawk et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Direct experience with multiple literary perspectives may draw more attention to the benefits of adopting another's perspective in a real-life conflict.

“Direct experience with multiple literary perspectives may draw more attention to the benefits of adopting another's perspective in a real-life conflict.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Emotional projection into fiction increases in both genders.

“Emotional projection into fiction also increases in both genders (Hawk et al., 2013).”

• cites Hawk et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

This is evidence that Wonder attracted the more empathic girls, but the less empathic boys.

“This is evidence that Wonder attracted the more empathic girls, but the less empathic boys.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The increase in ability to detect faux pas may have been larger with Wonder because Wonder includes several examples of social gaffes similar to the FP-C examples.

“The increase in ability to detect faux pas may have been larger with Wonder because it includes several examples of social gaffes similar to the FP-C examples.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Djikic and Oatley (2014) have proposed that simulated social contact within fiction induces temporary, individualized fluctuations in personality that facilitate more long-term change.

“Djikic and Oatley (2014) have proposed that simulated social contact within fiction induces temporary, individualized fluctuations in personality that facilitate more long-term change.”

• cites Djikic and Oatley (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Recent studies suggest that emotional transport into stories may be reduced in digital media.

“Recent studies (Mangen & Kuiken, 2014;Mangen, 2016) suggest that emotional transport into stories may be reduced in digital media.”

• cites Mangen & Kuiken, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mangen, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent psychology research has documented social as well as academic benefits from reading fiction.

“Recent psychology research (Djikic & Oatley, 2014, review) has documented social as well as academic benefits from reading fiction.”

• cites Djikic & Oatley, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This fondness for fantasy is associated with social anxiety and emotional instability in teens.

“While this increase is associated with higher willingness to help others, agreeableness, and openness, this fondness for fantasy is also associated with social anxiety and emotional instability in teens (Hawk et al., 2013).”

• cites Hawk et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kidd and Castano (2013) found that only literary, not popular fiction, improved theory of mind in adults.

“Kidd and Castano (2013) found that only literary, not popular fiction, improved theory of mind in adults; whether that distinction is meaningful for younger readers is unknown.”

• cites Kidd and Castano (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The iPads benefited boys, improving both reading engagement and performance, while having the opposite effect in girls.

“This raises the intriguing possibility that, in our students, the iPads benefited boys, improving both reading engagement and performance, while having the opposite effect in girls.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Students identified their tests with school passwords to assure anonymity while allowing comparison of individual scores before and after the unit.

“To assure anonymity, while also allowing comparison of individual scores before and after the unit, students identified their tests with school passwords.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Barnyak and McNelly (2015) found that early elementary students independently using e-readers for nonfiction texts recalled details better than those using print; however, neither group performed as well as a group reading the print books with teacher support.

“Barnyak and McNelly (2015) found that early elementary students independently using e-readers for nonfiction texts recalled details better than those using print; however, neither group performed as well as a group reading the print books with teacher support.”

• cites Barnyak and McNelly (2015) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Wonder's multiple narrators require considering the story from different viewpoints, while The Crossover is told only in Josh's voice.

“One key difference is that Wonder's multiple narrators require considering the story from different viewpoints, while The Crossover is told only in Josh's voice.”

May combine two claims.

Recent functional MRI studies found that poetry and prose activated different brain regions, with poetry more likely to stimulate brain areas involved in emotional responses to music and introspection.

“Recent functional MRI studies found that poetry and prose activated different brain regions, with poetry more likely to stimulate brain areas involved in emotional responses to music and introspection (Zeman, Milton, Smith & Rylance, 2013).”

• cites Zeman, Milton, Smith & Rylance, 2013Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The lack of change in Eyes-C in the Wonder group may be because of smaller sample size.

“No change in ability to infer emotions from eyes was seen in the Wonder group, perhaps because of smaller sample size.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Johnson (2012) found that reading and mentally engaging with a short story increased college students' sensitivity to fearful facial expressions, along with empathy and altruism.

“Johnson (2012) found that reading and mentally engaging with a short story increased college students' sensitivity to fearful facial expressions, along with empathy and altruism.”

• cites Johnson (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Unlike previous experiments that examined immediate effects, our study tested students a week after they finished reading the novel.

“However, both of those experiments examined immediate effects; in our study, testing was a week after the students finished reading the novel.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Mary Baldwin University, and parents gave informed consent while students gave written assent.

“Parents gave informed consent for student participation, while the students gave written assent.The school principal gave permission for the study and the Institutional Review Board of Mary Baldwin University approved all psychological testing procedures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several teams have reported increased tolerance after multi-week behavioral interventions involving reading and discussing stories about stigmatized groups.

“While several teams (e.g.Cameron & Rutland, 2006; Cameron, Rutland, Brown & Douch, 2006; Vezzali, Stathi & Giovannini, 2012; Vezzali et al., 2014) have reported increased tolerance after multi-week behavioral interventions involving reading and discussing stories about stigmatized groups, it is not clear to what extent such interventions contribute to the schools' academic goals.”

• cites Cameron & Rutland, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cameron, Rutland, Brown & Douch, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Vezzali, Stathi & Giovannini, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

We measured empathy for real-life acquaintances, not for the characters in the reading, and our students' assessments occurred a week after reading completion rather than immediately.

“However, we measured empathy for real-life acquaintances, not for the characters in the reading, and our students' assessments occurred a week after reading completion, rather than immediately.”

May combine two claims.

The improvement developed over a 5-week period of classroom study, and was present a week after reading ended, so it resembles the type of intermediate-term effect that Djikic and Oatley (2014) cite as missing from most studies of the prosocial effects of fiction.

“The improvement developed over a 5-week period of classroom study, and was present a week after reading ended, so it resembles the type of intermediate-term effect that Djikic and Oatley (2014) cite as missing from most studies of the prosocial effects of fiction.”

• cites Djikic and Oatley (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Because our psychological assessments were collected anonymously, it was not possible to connect individual students' reported Fantasy Scale scores to academic outcome.

“Because our psychological assessments were collected anonymously, it was not possible to connect individual students' reported Fantasy Scale scores to academic outcome.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Researchers have found consistent gender differences in IRI scores by age 13.

“Researchers have found consistent gender differences in IRI scores by age 13 (Hawk et al, 2014;Van der Graaf et al., 2013), although we did not see such differences in our previous Wonder study (Guarisco & Freeman, 2015).”

• cites Hawk et al, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Van der Graaf et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reading literary, but not popular, fiction is associated with increases in the ability to infer emotions from pictures of eyes in adults.

“Reading literary, but not popular, fiction is associated with increases in the ability to infer emotions from pictures of eyes in adults (Kidd & Castano, 2013).”

• cites Kidd & Castano, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Engagement with fiction is thought to simulate social contact, improve the ability to understand others' thoughts and feelings, and reduce prejudice.

“Engagement with fiction is thought to simulate social contact (Mar & Oatley, 2008), improve the ability to understand others' thoughts and feelings (Kidd & Castano, 2013;Johnson, 2012;Mar et al., 2008) and reduce prejudice (Johnson et al., 2013b;Vezzali et al., 2012).”

• cites Mar & Oatley, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kidd & Castano, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Johnson, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Prose may enhance empathy on a cognitive level, while verse acts on a more emotional mechanism.

“Prose may enhance empathy on a cognitive level, while verse acts on a more emotional mechanism.”

May combine two claims.

Some empathic tendencies (concern for others, adopting another's viewpoint) increase in girls, but decrease in boys, amplifying already existing gender differences.

“Some empathic tendencies (concern for others, adopting another's viewpoint) increase in girls, but decrease in boys, amplifying already existing gender differences (Van der Graaf et al., 2014).”

• cites Van der Graaf et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Eleven children failed to complete both surveys or provided non-matching codes, leaving 78 participants (41 M, 37 F) with usable data.

“Eleven children failed to complete both surveys or provided non-matching codes, leaving 78 participants (41 M, 37 F) with usable data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A year of acting classes at age 14 increased both empathy and theory of mind skills; comparable lessons in music or art did not.

“For example, a year of acting classes at age 14 increased both empathy and theory of mind skills; comparable lessons in music or art did not (Goldstein & Winner, 2012).”

• cites Goldstein & Winner, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Mangen and Kuiken (2014), the differences between paper and iPad were present only in the group that believed they were reading nonfiction; reading format did not affect narrative engagement when readers believed the story was fiction.

“However, these differences were present only in the group that believed they were reading nonfiction; reading format did not affect narrative engagement when readers believed the story was fiction.”

• cites Mangen and Kuiken (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most studies report high student interest in e-books.

“Most studies report high student interest in e-books (e.g.Barnyak & McNelly, 2015; Goodwyn, 2014; Huang, Liang & Chui, 2013), but it is unclear whether this enthusiasm translates into more careful reading or better understanding.”

• cites Barnyak & McNelly, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Goodwyn, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Huang, Liang & Chui, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gender differences in Eyes-C scores have been reported in early adolescence.

“Gender differences in Eyes-C scores (Baron-Cohen et al., 1999) have been reported in early adolescence.”

• cites Baron-Cohen et al., 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Wonder group was too small to detect an interaction effect of gender and reading format; only four boys and four girls read Wonder on the iPad.

“The Wonder group was too small to expect to be able to detect an interaction effect of gender and reading format; only four boys and four girls read Wonder on the iPad.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The decline in Perspective Taking in girls who read The Crossover could be related to the relative lack of female characters.

“The reason for the decline is unclear, but could be related to the relative lack of female characters.”

May combine two claims.

In Johnson's (2013a) short-term study of college students, guided imagery generation was necessary for a short story to have empathy-enhancing effects; no increase was seen in students instructed to read the story as they would for leisure.

“In Johnson's (2013a) short-term study of college students, guided imagery generation was necessary for a short story to have empathy-enhancing effects; no increase was seen in students instructed to read the story as they would for leisure.”

• cites Johnson's (2013a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Crossover lacked the explicit social gaffe object lessons of Wonder, which was associated with improved faux pas detection in both genders.

“The Crossover lacked the explicit social gaffe object lessons of Wonder, which was associated with improved faux pas detection in both genders.”

May combine two claims.

The Crossover boys began with higher Perspective Taking than Wonder boys, which may have contributed to the lack of measurable improvement.

“The Crossover boys began with higher Perspective Taking than Wonder boys, which may have contributed to the lack of measurable improvement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Boys may have focused more on the act of physical aggression that was a key plot point in The Crossover.

“Boys may have focused more on the act of physical aggression that was a key plot point in that book.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Baron-Cohen et al. (1999) reported that girls outscore boys on faux pas detection between the ages of 7 and 11.

“Although Baron-Cohen et al. (1999) reported that girls outscore boys on faux pas detection between the ages of 7 and 11, we saw no such gender difference at the beginning of our study.”

• cites Baron-Cohen et al. (1999) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This could lead girls to more carefully consider interpersonal interactions where someone could be unintentionally hurt emotionally, and thereby glean more theory of mind skills from The Crossover.

“This could lead girls to more carefully consider interpersonal interactions where someone could be unintentionally hurt emotionally, and thereby glean more theory of mind skills from The Crossover.”

May combine two claims.

The efforts to introduce sixth graders to studying novels with Wonder and The Crossover were successful both academically and socially.

“Efforts to introduce sixth graders to studying novels with Wonder and The Crossover were successful both on an academic and social level.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Simulated social contact may have been more subtle in the singly narrated poetry of The Crossover.

“Simulated social contact may have been more subtle in the singly narrated poetry of The Crossover.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pre-existing personality differences may have affected the children's choice of book, with boys who were lower in empathy preferring Wonder.

“Pre-existing personality differences may have affected the children's choice of book, with boys who were lower in empathy preferring Wonder.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Girls may have better related to the well-developed and similarly-aged female characters of Wonder than to Josh's mother, who is also the assistant principal and a dual authority figure.

“Girls may have better related to the well-developed and similarly-aged female characters of Wonder than to Josh's mother, who is also the assistant principal of his school and therefore a dual authority figure.”

May combine two claims.

The within-subjects design, comparing individual students' scores before and after the unit, controls for expected gender differences and other baseline differences related to book selection or reading format.

“Our within-subjects design, which compares individual students' scores before the unit to those after, controls for expected gender differences and other baseline differences related to book selection or reading format.”