Suicide and Friendships Among American Adolescents
Open accessAbstract
Objectives. We investigated the relationship between friendships and suicidality among male and female adolescents. Methods. We analyzed friendship data on 13 465 adolescents from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health to explore the relationship between friendship and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. We controlled for known factors associated with suicidality. Results. Having had a friend who committed suicide increased the likelihood of suicidal ideation and attempts for both boys and girls. Socially isolated females were more likely to have suicidal thoughts, as were females whose friends were not friends with each other. Among adolescents thinking about suicide, suicide attempts appear largely stochastic, with few consistent risk factors between boys and girls. Conclusions. The friendship environment affects suicidality for both boys and girls. Female adolescents’ suicidal thoughts are significantly increased by social isolation and friendship patterns in which friends were not friends with each other.
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Adolescents may be particularly susceptible to socialization of self-injury when a close friend endorses depressive symptoms, NSSI, or suicidal ideation and behavior.
“adolescents may be particularly susceptible toward the socialization of self-injury when a close friend endorses depressive symptoms, NSSI, or suicidal ideation and behavior (Bearman & Moody 2004, Kandel et al. 1991, Rew et al. 2001, Yoder 1999)”
From Adolescent Suicide as a Failure of Acute Stress-Response Systems. (2019) · cites this paper as Bearman & Moody 2004
The Results (page unavailable in our copy) associate a friend's suicide attempt with adolescents' own suicidal thoughts and attempts, supporting the suicidal-behavior portion of the claim. The paper does not establish socialization as the mechanism or address a friend's depressive symptoms, NSSI, or suicidal ideation. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNetworks appear to have gendered effects, with girls being most at risk of suicidality when they have exceedingly small social networks or are immersed in exceedingly large ones.
“Likewise, networks appear to have gendered effects, with girls being most at risk of suicidality when they have exceedingly small social networks or are immersed in exceedingly large ones (Bearman and Moody, 2004).”
From The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention (2021) · cites this paper as Bearman and Moody, 2004
The Results report that social isolation increased girls’ odds of suicidal ideation and that network effects differed by gender. They also link risk to intransitive friendships, not exceedingly large networks; dense school networks were associated with lower risk for girls. The cited passages provide no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOf the 49 highest-rigor studies on R/S and suicide, 39 (80%) reported less suicide, fewer attempts, or more negative attitudes toward suicide among more R/S, and two (4%) found positive relationships.
“With regard to the 49 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 39 (80%) reported less suicide, fewer suicide attempts, or more negative attitudes toward suicide among the more R/S [155–170] and two (4%) found positive relationships (one study in Delhi, India [171], and one in college students distressed over R/S concerns [172]).”
From Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications (2012) · cites this paper as [164]
The Methods (page unavailable) describe this paper’s measure of religious-service attendance, and the Results (page unavailable) report associations with adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. Neither section assesses 49 high-rigor studies or reports the claimed 39-study and two-study counts; searches for the religion-related findings did not locate those figures. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn girls, a large, fragmented network consisting of friends who were not friends with each other further increased risk of depression because the care of maintaining such networks involved even more work.
“In girls, a large, fragmented network consisting of friends who were not friends with each other further increased risk of depression because the care of maintaining such networks involved even more work (Bearman and Moody, 2004).”
From Social functioning in major depressive disorder (2016) · cites this paper as Bearman and Moody, 2004
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BackgroundMiranda-Mendizábal, A., Castellví, P., Parés-Badell, O., Almenara, J., Alonso, I., Blasco, M. J., Cebrià, A., Gabilondo, A., Gili, M., Lagares, C., et al. (2017) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.196345 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
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Taliaferro, L. A., Rienzo, B. A., Miller, M. D., Pigg, R. M., & Dodd, V. J. N. (2008) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00342.x · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Social Capital and Physical Health
Kim, D. J., Subramanian, S. V., & Kawachi, I. I. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-71311-3_8 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“These studies have tended to focus on the “dark side” of social capital e.g., the contagion of high risk behaviors within networks ‐ such as the spread of suicidal ideation ( Bearman & Moody, 2004 ), injection drug use (Friedman & Aral, 2001), or alcohol and other drug use among adolescents (Valente, Gallaher, & Moutt…”
BackgroundTaliaferro, L. A., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2013) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12046 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Associations among relational values, support, health, and well-being across the adult lifespan
CHOPIK, W. J. (2017) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12187 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“This finding is consistent with previous research showing that friendship quality often predicts health more so than the quality of other relationships (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Christakis & Fowler, 2007; Giles et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResultSuicide as a derangement of the self-sacrificial aspect of eusociality.
Joiner, T. E., Hom, M. A., Hagan, C. R., & Silva, C. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000020 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“For example, past studies have revealed marked patterns of social withdrawal and isolation among individuals who experience suicidal ideation (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Cheatle, Wasser, Foster, Olugbodi, & Bryan, 2014), make a suicide attempt (Conwell, 1997; Cui, Cheng, Xu, Chen, & Wang, 2011; Trout,…”
ResultArslan, G., Allen, K., & Ryan, T. (2020) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-020-09721-z · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Predicting future suicide attempts among depressed suicide ideators: A 10-year longitudinal study
May, A. M., Klonsky, E. D., & Klein, D. N. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.04.009 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“, 2007), but two other studies found no effect childhood sexual abuse (Bearman and Moody, 2004; Benda, 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFitting In, Standing Out: Navigating the Social Challenges of High School to Get an Education
Crosnoe, R. L. (2011) · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Pachucki, M. C., Ozer, E. J., Barrat, A., & Cattuto, C. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.04.015 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Czyz, E. K., Liu, Z., & King, C. A. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.651998 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“Related research, however, suggests that higher levels of peer support and strong friendship ties are associated with less severe suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms and reduced risk of suicide attempts (e.g., Bearman & Moody, 2004; Lewinsohn et al., 1996; Slavin & Rainer, 1990).”
BackgroundAnalysing the connectivity and communication of suicidal users on twitter
Colombo, G. B., Burnap, P., Hodorog, A., & Scourfield, J. (2015) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2015.07.018 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“In [8] the authors conducted a similar study by investigating the relationship between friendships and suicidality among a larger sample of male and female adolescents in the US.”
BackgroundSocial Aspects of Suicidal Behavior and Prevention in Early Life: A Review
Amitai, M., & Apter, A. (2012) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph9030985 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Thus, social network variables are relevant to suicidality in different ways in boys and girls [24].”
BackgroundDonald, M., Dower, J., Correa‐Velez, I., & Jones, M. (2006) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01747.x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“cant impact on their wellbeing [24,25], what has emerged more recently is the important role that romantic relationships play in regard to young adults’ mental health.”
BackgroundPeer Smoking, Other Peer Attributes, and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Social Network Analysis
Ennett, S. T., Faris, R., Hipp, J. R., Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A. M., & Cai, L. (2008) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-008-0087-8 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“Similarly, not having friends has been associated with poorer social competencies and adjustment (Hartup 1996) and even suicide ideation in girls ( Bearman and Moody 2004 ).”
BackgroundSuicidal Disclosures among Friends: Using Social Network Data to Understand Suicide Contagion
Mueller, A. S., & Abrutyn, S. (2015) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146514568793 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Kaminski, J. W., Puddy, R. W., Hall, D. M., Cashman, S. Y., Crosby, A. E., & Ortega, L. (2009) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9472-2 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“As well, several previous studies with significant results for various connectedness domains on suicide (Bearman and Moody 2004; Borowsky et al. 2001; McKeown et al. 1998; McNeely and Falci 2004) were longitudinal.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMcDermott, R., Fowler, J., & Christakis, N. (2013) · Social forces; a scientific medium of social study and interpretation · doi:10.1093/sf/sot096 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“For example, the greater the transitivity of the network around a married couple (the more their friends are friends with each other), the lower their risk of divorce might be (similar, for example, to the effect Bearman and Moody found with respect to suicide risk in adolescent girls [2004]).”
Hubbard, D. J., & Matthews, B. A. (2007) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128706296733 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“It undermines the development of the cohesive friendship networks that are needed for girls’ healthy development (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Hazler & Mellin, 2004).”
BackgroundMueller, A. S., & Abrutyn, S. (2016) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122416663464 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Estimating peer effects in sexual behavior among adolescents
Ali, M. M., & Dwyer, D. S. (2010) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.12.008 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“…has been devoted to determine the importance of social networks in influencing adolescent behaviors, especially health risky behaviors and outcomes (Ali & Dwyer, 2009; Bearman & Moody, 2004; Guo, Elder, Cai, & Hamilton, 2009; Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005; Valente, Fujimoto, Chou, & Metz, 2009).”
BackgroundSocial isolation: A conceptual and measurement proposal
Zavaleta, D., Samuel, K., & Mills, C. (2014) · University of Oxford · doi:10.35648/20.500.12413/11781/ii029 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“In fact, social isolation is linked to suicide in both a direct and fundamental way (Trout, 1980) and has been found to increase suicidal thoughts, particularly among young women (Bearman and Moody 2004).”
Association Between Social Integration and Suicide Among Women in the United States
Tsai, A. C., Lucas, M., & Kawachi, I. (2015) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1002 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“Consequently, most studies in this field have instead used proxy outcomes such as suicide attempts (28, 29), or have been based on populations enriched for psychiatric morbidity (e.”
BackgroundMental health and social networks after disaster
Bryant, R. A., Gallagher, H. C., Gibbs, L., Pattison, P., MacDougall, C., Harms, L., Block, K., Baker, E., Sinnott, V., Ireton, G., et al. (2017) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15111403 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Parigi, P., & Henson, W. B. (2014) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145646 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Arango, A., Opperman, K. J., Gipson, P. Y., & King, C. A. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.003 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Network Exposure and Homicide Victimization in an African American Community
Papachristos, A. V., & Wildeman, C. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301441 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Fotti, S. A., Katz, L. Y., Afifi, T. O., & Cox, B. J. (2006) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370605101106 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Adolescent suicidal behaviours, including ideation and attempts, are a relatively common psychiatric emergency (1), and such adolescents are at significant risk of completed suicide (2).”
BackgroundResultImpact of Modeling on Adolescent Suicidal Behavior
Insel, B. J., & Gould, M. S. (2008) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.01.007 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Peer relationships and suicide ideation and attempts among Chinese adolescents
Cui, S., Cheng, Y., Xu, Z., Chen, D., & Wang, Y. (2010) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01181.x · Cited by 121 · see citing works
US Suicide Rates by Age Group, 1970–2002: An Examination of Recent Trends
McKeown, R. E., Cuffe, S. P., & Schulz, R. (2006) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2005.066951 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Social Control and Youth Suicidality: Situating Durkheim's Ideas in a Multilevel Framework
Maimon, D., & Kuhl, D. C. (2008) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240807300603 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Giletta, M., Prinstein, M. J., Abela, J. R. Z., Gibb, B. E., Barrocas, A. L., & Hankin, B. L. (2015) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038652 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Positive Social Support, Negative Social Exchanges, and Suicidal Behavior in College Students
Hirsch, J. K., & Barton, A. L. (2011) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.515635 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“28 – 30 On the other hand, lower levels of parental and peer support are associated with poor academic performance and increased aggression, anxiety, and depression.”
BackgroundSoto‐Sanz, V., Castellví, P., Piqueras, J. A., Marín, J. R., Rodríguez‐Jiménez, T., Miranda-Mendizábal, A., Parés‐Badell, O., Almenara, J., Alonso, I., Blasco, M. J., et al. (2019) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13036 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Fleming, T. M., Merry, S., Robinson, E. M., Denny, S., & Watson, P. D. (2007) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00048670601050481 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“Adolescent friendships may be important in terms of suicide ideation or where other dimensions of peer relationships (such as bullying) are targeted [19,42], but may be less significant in suicide attempt risk.”
BackgroundThe Peer Context and the Development of the Perpetration of Adolescent Dating Violence
Foshee, V. A., Benefield, T., Reyes, H. L. M., Ennett, S. T., Faris, R., Chang, L., Hussong, A. M., & Suchindran, C. (2013) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9915-7 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“2010), whereas intransitive triads reflect unbalanced and potentially discordant relationships (Bearman and Moody 2004).”
Palinkas, L. A., Holloway, I. W., Rice, E., Fuentes, D., Wu, Q., & Chamberlain, P. (2011) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-6-113 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“, [31]].”
Dynamical Models Explaining Social Balance and Evolution of Cooperation
Traag, V., Dooren, P. M. V., & Leenheer, P. D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060063 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“The individuals in an unbalanced triad have an incentive to adjust their opinions so as to reduce the stress experienced in such a situation [2].”
BackgroundHigher-order clustering in networks
Yin, H., Benson, A. R., & Leskovec, J. (2018) · Physical review. E · doi:10.1103/physreve.97.052306 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Wyman, P. A., Pickering, T. A., Pisani, A. R., Rulison, K. L., Schmeelk‐Cone, K., Hartley, C. M., Gould, M. S., Caine, E. D., LoMurray, M., Brown, C. H., et al. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13102 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Moreover, as with nearly all studies investigating STB in general populations (Bearman & Moody, 2004) our findings are limited by self-report without other sources of evidence to confirm differences in STB rates across schools.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBenedetti, F., Durando, J., & Vighetti, S. (2014) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2014.01.016 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Interindividual propagation of behaviors and attitudes is common in a variety of situations, such as the social propagation of emotions [9,18], smoking cessation [12], obesity [13], and suicide [1].”
Feasibility of Screening Adolescents for Suicide Risk in “Real-World” High School Settings
Hallfors, D. D., Brodish, P., Khatapoush, S., Sanchez, V. A., Cho, H., & Steckler, A. (2005) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2004.057281 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Strong social support networks and peer relationships are protective.(17,18) An effective population-based strategy to prevent adolescent suicide should include a school-based approach, given that such an approach is the most efficient way to reach large numbers of young people.”
BackgroundFaris, R., & Ennett, S. T. (2010) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2010.06.003 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
How people live with or get over being suicidal: a review of qualitative studies
Lakeman, R., & FitzGerald, M. (2008) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04773.x · Cited by 108 · see citing works
RACE, FRIENDSHIP NETWORKS, AND VIOLENT DELINQUENCY
Haynie, D., & Payne, D. (2006) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00063.x · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Eskin, M., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., & Altınyazar, V. (2010) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-010-0254-7 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Indeed, a vast array of scientific evidence indicates that social support is one of the strongest protective factors against suicidal behavior [4, 12, 20, 35].”
BackgroundTHE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL STUDIES
Astuti, K. S., & Prabawa, S. P. A. K. U. K. U. H. (2021) · Journal of Humanities and Social Studies · Cited by 104 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bearman, P. S., & Moody, J.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Public Health
- Publisher
- American Public Health Association
- Published
- 2004-01
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 89-95
- ISSN
- 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-0048
- PMC
- PMC1449832
- OpenAlex
- W1970545454
- Cited by
- 760
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 15.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD 31921, P01HD031921)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Keywords
- adolescent suicide, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, friendship, peer relationships, social isolation, gender differences, suicide bereavement
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Role, Self Concept, Social Support, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted, United States, Logistic Models, Friends
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