An Archaeological Contribution to the Early Iron Age Chronological Debate: Alternative Chronologies for Phoenicia and Their Effects on the Levant, Cyprus, and Greece
Abstract
The debate over the chronology of the early Iron Age in Israel by far transcends Palestinian archaeology, history, and biblical historiography. Chronologies for most of the adjacent regions, and those of entities farther afield, such as Cyprus and Greece, are largely dependent on the Levant. The debate has centered to date mainly on historical considerations, adjusting the chronologies of the material record to the different proposed scenarios. This article advocates an opposite approach, namely, constructing detailed artifactual, mainly ceramic sequences, anchoring these to an absolute time scale by 14C dating, and only then correlating them with historical data. Southern Phoenicia is proposed as a starting point for such an endeavor. Not only does it offer the most detailed stratigraphic/ceramic sequence to date for the early Iron Age in the Southern Levant, its commercial ties provide a wealth of ceramic indices for correlating the Phoenician sequence with other series of the Levant and farther Mediterranean regions. To a large extent these overcome problems of regionalism, which otherwise hamper attempts at chronological cross-correlations in this relatively fragmented period. Two alternative chronologies are presented: the traditional, high chronology, which has been established mainly on the basis of biblical/historical considerations, and the newly proposed low one, which is supported by radiometric dates from Tel Dor. The adoption of either one will entail a revision…
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The conclusion that the transition from Iron I to Iron II occurred about 900 BCE is questionable.
“The conclusion presented by Gilboa and Sharon (2003), Boaretto et al. (2005), and Sharon et al. (Sharon et al. 2007:18-22)-that the transition from Iron I to Iron II occurred about 900 BCE-is questionable.”
From <sup>14</sup>C Dates and the Iron Age Chronology of Israel: A Response (2008) · cites this paper as Gilboa and Sharon (2003)
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BackgroundBetween Israel and Phoenicia: The Iron IIA–B Fortified Purple-dye Production Centre at Tel Shiqmona
Shalvi, G., & Gilboa, A. (2023) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1080/03344355.2023.2190283 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“The general correlation of the Ir1|2 horizon with Late Proto-Geometric in Euboea is based on suggestions offered in, for example, Fantalkin et al. (2015: table 1), Gilboa and Sharon (2003), Kourou (2008) and Mazar and Kourou (2019: table 1).”
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“While many have recently claimed that imports from this group are restricted to late Iron IIA contexts (Gilboa and Sharon 2003: 62–64; Herzog and Singer-Avitz 2004: 218; Mazar et al. 2005: 242; Mazar 2006: 168), it seems that there is still room for a somewhat earlier date for its appearance (Arie…”
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“…example, done at Tell es-Sultan, Jericho (Bruins and van der Plicht 1995, 1998); Tel Rehov (Bruins et al. 2003a,b, 2005; Mazar 2005; Mazar et al. 2005); Tel Dor (Gilboa and Sharon 2001, 2003; Gilboa et al. 2009; Sharon et al. 2005); and Khirbet en-Nahas (Levy et al. 2004, 2008; Higham et al. 2005).”
BackgroundEarly Iron Age Tombs in Northern Israel Revisited
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“A detailed analysis of the fabric of Phoenician types demonstrated that some had been produced at Tyre while others had been manufactured on the Carmel coast in or near Dor (Gilboa and Goren 2015).”
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Testing the Limits: Radiocarbon Dating and the End of the Late Bronze Age
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“Note that although most these data were derived from charcoal that may have represented long-lived species, intercomparison with some analyses of olive pits suggests that old wood was not a significant factor (Gilboa and Sharon 2003: Table 22, RT-2960; 2961).”
BackgroundThe Beth Shean Valley and its Vicinity in the 10th Century BCE
Mazar, A. (2021) · Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology · doi:10.52486/01.00001.10 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In any event, placing the Iron Age I/II transition at ca. 900 BCE or even later, in the first half of the 9th century (Gilboa and Sharon 2003), cannot be accepted, as recently stated: “It is by and large agreed that Iron Age IIA ‘covers’ a still debated portion of the second-half of the 10th…”
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Phoenicia, Carthage, and Popular Government in the Pre-Classical Mediterranean
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The Colors of Power: An Outline of Purple Dye Production in the Iron Age Levant
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To Build or Not to Build: Considerations of Coastal Development in the Ancient Southern Levant
Gambash, G. (2024) · Journal of Marine Science and Engineering · doi:10.3390/jmse12050803 · Cited by 1
Phoenicians and Greeks as Comparable Contemporary Migrant Groups
Garnand, B. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781118341339.ch8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Urbanism and Its Demise in the Early Bronze II and III
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hutt, P. (2006) · British medical journal · doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7566.s86 · Cited by 1
Dor, the Carmel Coast and the Earliest Phoenician Maritime Ventures
Gilboa, A. (2024) · Die Welt des Orients · doi:10.13109/wdor.2024.54.1.59
Self-citationCalvo, F. J. N. (2021) · Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean · doi:10.31338/uw.2083-537x.pam30.2.25
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.008
Proudhon, P., Kropotkin, P., Bakunin, M., Herzen, A., & Tolstoy, L. (2020) · The Archaeology of the Mediterranean Iron Age · doi:10.1787/9789264040502-7-fr
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.003
Interpreting the Mediterranean
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.002
Hodos, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9780511979316.005
Villages and the Growth of Social Power in the Early Bronze I
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.003
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.007
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.008
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.010
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.001
(2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.009
Villages, Manors and Integrated City-States of the Middle Bronze Age
Greenberg, R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316275993.006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
(2013) · Le Royaume biblique oublié · doi:10.3917/oj.finke.2013.01.0253
- Authors
- Gilboa, A., & Sharon, I.
- Venue
- Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2003-11
- Volume
- 332
- Pages
- 7-80
- ISSN
- 0003-097X (ISSN-L)
- 2161-8062
- OpenAlex
- W2329004667
- Cited by
- 141
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 39.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Biblical Studies and Interpretation
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Keywords
- ceramic sequence, radiocarbon dating, Tel Dor, Southern Levant, Cyprus, Phoenician trade, absolute chronology, biblical chronology
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